Arnulf Grubler

Arnulf Grubler (Grübler) first joined IIASA in 1976 to work with the Energy Systems Program and currently works as a Senior Research Scholar and Acting Program Director of the Transitions to New Technologies Program. He also holds a part-time appointment as Professor in the Field of Energy and Technology at the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale University, New Haven, USA. His teaching and research focuses on the long-term history and future of technology and the environment with emphasis on energy, transport, and communication systems.

Prof. Grubler received his master's degree in engineering from the Technical University of Vienna, where he was also awarded his PhD. He completed his Habilitation (venia legendi in systems science of environment and technology) at the Mining University Leoben, Austria. He is also foreign member elect of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences.

Prof. Grubler has been serving as Lead and Contributing Author and as Review Editor for the Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Assessment Reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, co-recipient of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize). He was also Convening Lead and Coordinating Author for three knowledge modules of the Global Energy Assessment completed in 2012. He currently serves on the editorial boards of Carbon Management and Journal of Industrial Ecology.

He has published widely as author, coauthor, or editor of twelve books, three special journal issues, over 100 peer reviewed articles and book chapters, and over 30 additional professional papers in the domains of (modeling of) technological change and diffusion, long wave theory, historical transitions in energy and transport systems, long-term future scenarios, energy technology innovation systems and policy, climate change, and resource economics.

Examples of his latest publications include the book Energizing Sustainable Cities: Assessing Urban Energy, (edited together with David Fisk), Earthscan, 2013; and two major review articles on energy technology innovations systems and innovation portfolio biases: "The Energy Technology Innovation System", Annual Review of Environment and Resources 2012, 37:137-162 (with K. Sims Gallagher, L. Kuhl, G. Nemet, and C. Wilson); and "Marginalization of End-use Technologies in Energy Innovation for Climate Protection". Nature Climate Change, Vol. 2, 26 October 2012:780-788.

Last update: 02-JAN-2014

Koomey J, Hultman N E, & Grubler A (2017). A reply to “Historical construction costs of global nuclear power reactors”. Energy Policy 102: 640-643. DOI:10.1016/j.enpol.2016.03.052.

Grubler A (2017). Transitions to New Technologies (TNT)Institutional Review Panel Site Visit February 27, 2017. In: IIASA Institutional Evaluation 2017, 27 February-1 March 2017, IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria.

Grubler A, Wilson C, & Nemet GF (2016). Apples, oranges, and consistent comparisons of the temporal dynamics of energy transitions. Energy Research & Social Science 22: 18-25. DOI:10.1016/j.erss.2016.08.015.

Shchiptsova A, Zhao J, Grubler A, Kryazhimskiy A, & Ma T (2016). Assessing historical realibility of the agent-based model of the global energy system. Journal of Systems Science and Systems Engineering 25 (3): 326-350. DOI:10.1007/s11518-016-5303-7.

Leibowicz BD, Krey V, & Grubler A (2016). Representing spatial technology diffusion in an energy system optimization model. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 103: 350-363. DOI:10.1016/j.techfore.2015.06.001.

Nemet GF, Grubler A, & Kammen DM (2016). Countercyclical energy and climate policy for the US. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews (WIREs). Climate Change 7 (1): 5-12. DOI:10.1002/wcc.369.

Smith P, Davis SJ, Creutzig F, Fuss S, Rogelj J, McCollum D, Krey V, Grubler A, et al. (2016). Biophysical and economic limits to negative CO2 emissions. Nature Climate Change 6 (1): 42-50. DOI:10.1038/nclimate2870.

Wilson C & Grubler A (2015). Historical Characteristics and Scenario Analysis of Technological Change in the Energy System. In: Technology and Innovation for Sustainable Development. Eds. Vos, R. & Alarcon, D., Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research . pp. 45-80 Norwich, UK: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-4725-8079-5 DOI:10.5040/9781472580795.ch-003.

Grubler A, Ermoliev Y, & Kryazhimskiy A (2015). Coping with uncertainties-examples of modeling approaches at IIASA. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 98: 213-222. DOI:10.1016/j.techfore.2015.06.004.

Grubler A, Nakicenovic N, Pachauri S, Rogner H-H, & Smith KR (2014). Energy Primer. Online Textbook based on Chapter 1 of the Global Energy Assessment (GEA). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria (September 2014)

Rao ND, Riahi K, & Grubler A (2014). Climate impacts of poverty eradication. Nature Climate Change 4 (9): 749-751. DOI:10.1038/nclimate2340.

Grubler A (2014). The French Pressurised Water Reactor Programme. In: Energy Technology Innovation: Learning from Historical Successes and Failures. Eds. Grubler, A & Wilson, C, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107023222

Grubler A (2014). Grand designs: Historical patterns and future scenarios of energy technological change. In: Energy Technology Innovation: Learning from Historical Successes and Failures. Eds. Grubler, A & Wilson, C, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107023222

Grubler A, Diaz Anadon L, Gallagher KS, Kempener R, O'Rourke A, & Wilson C (2014). Global R&D, market formation, and diffusion investments in energy technology innovation. In: Energy Technology Innovation: Learning from Historical Successes and Failures. Eds. Grubler, A & Wilson, C, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107023222

Grubler A & Fuss S (2014). Technology portfolios: Modelling technological uncertainty and innovation risks. In: Energy Technology Innovation: Learning from Historical Successes and Failures. Eds. Grubler, A & Wilson, C, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107023222

Grubler A & Nemet GF (2014). Sources and consequences of knowledge depreciation. In: Energy Technology Innovation: Learning from Historical Successes and Failures. Eds. Grubler, A & Wilson, C, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107023222

Grubler A & Wilson C (2014). Energy Technology Innovation: Learning from Historical Successes and Failures. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107023222

Grubler A & Wilson C (2014). Historical case studies of energy technology innovation. In: Energy Technology Innovation: Learning from Historical Successes and Failures. Eds. Grubler, A & Wilson, C, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107023222

Grubler A & Wilson C (2014). Policies for energy technology innovation. In: Energy Technology Innovation: Learning from Historical Successes and Failures. Eds. Grubler, A & Wilson, C, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107023222

Meyer D, Mytelka L, Press R, Dall'Oglio EL, Teixeira de Sousa Jr P, & Grubler A (2014). Brazilian ethanol: Unpacking a success story of energy technology innovation. In: Energy Technology Innovation: Learning from Historical Successes and Failures. Eds. Grubler, A & Wilson, C, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107023222

Wilson C & Grubler A (2014). The Energy Technology Innovation System. In: Energy Technology Innovation: Learning from Historical Successes and Failures. Eds. Grubler, A & Wilson, C, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107023222

Wilson C & Grubler A (2014). Energy technology innovation. In: Energy Technology Innovation: Learning from Historical Successes and Failures. Eds. Grubler, A & Wilson, C, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107023222

Wilson C & Grubler A (2014). Lessons learnt from the Energy Technology Innovation System. In: Energy Technology Innovation: Learning from Historical Successes and Failures. Eds. Grubler, A & Wilson, C, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107023222

Wilson C & Grubler A (2014). A comparative analysis of annual market investments in energy supply and end-use technologies. In: Energy Technology Innovation: Learning from Historical Successes and Failures. Eds. Grubler, A & Wilson, C, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107023222

Grubler A (2013). Interview with Arnulf Grubler. [[Carbon Management]]; 4(4):359-363 (August 2013)

McCollum DL, Krey V, Riahi K, Kolp P, Grubler A, Makowski M, & Nakicenovic N (2013). Climate policies can help resolve energy security and air pollution challenges. Climatic Change 119 (2): 479-494. DOI:10.1007/s10584-013-0710-y.

Wilson C, Grubler A, Bauer N, Krey V, & Riahi K (2013). Future capacity growth of energy technologies: Are scenarios consistent with historical evidence? Climatic Change 118 (2): 381-395. DOI:10.1007/s10584-012-0618-y.

Gallagher KS, Grubler A, Kuhl L, Nemet GF, & Wilson C (2012). The Energy Technology Innovation System. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 37: 137-162. DOI:10.1146/annurev-environ-060311-133915.

Grubler A (2012). Energy transitions research: Insights and cautionary tales. Energy Policy 50: 8-16. DOI:10.1016/j.enpol.2012.02.070.

Wilson C, Grubler A, Gallagher KS, & Nemet GF (2012). Marginalization of end-use technologies in energy innovation for climate protection. Nature Climate Change 2 (11): 780-788. DOI:10.1038/nclimate1576.

Grubler A, Aguayo F, Gallagher KS, Hekkert M, Jiang K, Mytelka L, Neij L, Nemet GF, et al. (2012). Chapter 24: Policies for the Energy Technology Innovation System (ETIS). In: Global Energy Assessment: Toward a Sustainable Future. Eds. Team, GEA Writing, pp.1665-1744 (October 2012): Cambridge University Press and IIASA.

Grubler A, Bai X, Büttner T, Dhakal S, Fisk DJ, Ichinose T, Keirstead JE, Sammmer G, et al. (2012). Chapter 18: Urban energy systems. In: Global Energy Assessment: Toward a Sustainable Future. Eds. Team, GEA Writing, pp.1307-1400 (October 2012): Cambridge University Press and IIASA.

Grubler A, Johansson TB, Muncada L, Nakicenovic N, Pachauri S, Riahi K, Rogner H-H, & Strupeit L (2012). Chapter 1: Energy primer. In: Global Energy Assessment: Toward a Sustainable Future. Eds. Team, GEA Writing, pp.99-150 (October 2012): Cambridge University Press and IIASA.

Riahi K, Dentener F, Gielen D, Grubler A, Jewell J, Klimont Z, Krey V, McCollum DL, et al. (2012). Chapter 17: Energy pathways for sustainable development. In: Global Energy Assessment: Toward a Sustainable Future. Eds. Team, GEA Writing, pp.1203-1306 (October 2012): Cambridge University Press and IIASA.

Grubler A & Fisk D (2012). Energizing Sustainable Cities: Assessing Urban Energy. Earthscan/Routledge. ISBN 9781849714389

Pachauri S, Grubler A, Krey V, & Riahi K (2012). Der Nutzen liegt auf der Hand. [[Weltnachrichten]] Nr.3/2012, Austrian Development Agency (ADA), p.11

Grubler A & Buettner T (2012). Urbanization past and future. In: Energizing Sustainable Cities. Eds. Grubler, A. & Fisk, D., pp. 17-30 Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-020311012-6 DOI:10.4324/9780203110126.

Grubler A & Schulz N (2012). Urban energy use. In: Energizing Sustainable Cities. Eds. Grubler, A. & Fisk, D., pp. 57-70 Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-020311012-6 DOI:10.4324/9780203110126.

Schulz N, Grubler A, & Ichinose T (2012). Energy demand and air pollution densities, including heat island effects. In: Energizing Sustainable Cities. Eds. Grubler, A. & Fisk, D., pp. 95-107 Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-020311012-6 DOI:10.4324/9780203110126.

Wilson C & Grubler A (2011). A Comparative Analysis of Annual Market Investments in Energy Supply and End-use Technologies. IIASA Interim Report. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: IR-11-032

Wilson C & Grubler A (2011). Lessons from the history of technological change for clean energy scenarios and policies. Natural Resources Forum 35 (3): 165-184. DOI:10.1111/j.1477-8947.2011.01386.x.

Wilson C & Grubler A (2011). Lessons from the History of Technology and Global Change for the Emerging Clean Technology Cluster. IIASA Interim Report. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: IR-11-001

Grubler A & Riahi K (2010). Do governments have the right mix in their energy R&D portfolios? Carbon Management 1 (1): 79-87. DOI:10.4155/cmt.10.16.

Grubler A (2010). The costs of the French nuclear scale-up: A case of negative learning by doing. Energy Policy 38 (9): 5174-5188. DOI:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.05.003.

Manning MR, Edmonds J, Emori S, Grubler A, Hibbard K, Joos F, Kainuma M, Keeling RF, et al. (2010). Misrepresentation of the IPCC CO2 emission scenarios. Nature Geoscience 3 (6): 376-377. DOI:10.1038/ngeo880.

Grubler A & Pachauri S (2009). Problems with burden-sharing proposal among one billion high emitters. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106 (43): E122-E123. DOI:10.1073/pnas.0909994106.

Grubler A (2009). An Assessment of the Costs of the French Nuclear PWR Program 1970-2000. IIASA Interim Report. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: IR-09-036

Grubler A & Pachauri S (2009). Problems with burden-sharing proposal among one billion high emitters (Letters). [[PNAS]], 106(43):E122-E123 (27 October 2009)

Krey V, Canadell JG, Nakicenovic N, Abe Y, Andruleit H, Archer D, Grubler A, Hamilton NTM, et al. (2009). Gas hydrates: Entrance to a methane age or climate threat? Environmental Research Letters 4 (3): no.034007. DOI:10.1088/1748-9326/4/3/034007.

Grubler A (2009). Determinants of the future of fossil extractive industries. Berg- und Hüttenmännische Monatshefte (BHM) 154 (6): 243-248. DOI:10.1007/s00501-009-0469-7.

Ma T, Grubler A, & Nakamori Y (2009). Modeling technology adoptions for sustainable development under increasing returns, uncertainty, and heterogeneous agents. European Journal of Operational Research 195 (1): 296-306. DOI:10.1016/j.ejor.2008.01.036.

Ma T, Grubler A, Nakicenovic N, & Arthur WB (2008). Technologies as agents of change: A simulation model of the evolving complexity of the global energy system. IIASA Interim Report. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: IR-08-021

Grubler A (2008). Energy transitions. In: The Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cleveland, Cutler J., National Council for Science and the Environment: Environmental Information Coalition.

Ma T & Grubler A (2008). The evolution of technological complexity: An agent-based simulation model of the global energy system. In: Modeling Environment-Improving Technological Innovations under Uncertainty. Eds. Golub, A.A. & Markandya, A., pp. 205-244 London, UK: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-46376-8

Grubler A, O'Neill BC, Riahi K, Chirkov V, Goujon A, Kolp P, Prommer I, Scherbov S, et al. (2007). Regional, national, and spatially explicit scenarios of demographic and economic change based on SRES. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 74 (7): 980-1029. DOI:10.1016/j.techfore.2006.05.023.

Grubler A (2007). An Historical Perspective on Global Energy Transitions. In: Modeling the Oil Transition: A Summary of the Proceedings of the DOE/EPA Workshop on the Economic and Environmental Implications of Global Energy Transitions. Eds. Greene, D.L., pp. 53-60 Oak Ridge, Tennessee: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). DOI:ORNL/TM-2007/014.

Dearing JA, Graumlich LJ, & Grubler A (2007). Integrating socioenvironmental interactions over centennial timescales - Needs and issues. In: Sustainability or Collapse. Eds. Costanza, R., Graumlich, L. & Steffen, W., Cambridge: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-03366-6

Grubler A, Nakicenovic N, Riahi K, Wagner F, Fischer G, Keppo I, Obersteiner M, O'Neill BC, et al. (2007). Integrated assessment of uncertainties in greenhouse gas emissions and their mitigation: Introduction and overview. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 74 (7): 873-886. DOI:10.1016/j.techfore.2006.07.009.

Halsnaes K, Shukla PR, Ahuja D, Akumu G, Beale R, Edmonds J, Gollier C, & Grubler A (2007). Framing issues (Chapter 2). In: Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of WG III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC. Eds. Metz, B., Davidson, O. R., Bosch, P. R., Dave, R. & Meyer, A., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Riahi K, Grubler A, & Nakicenovic N (2007). Scenarios of long-term socio-economic and environmental development under climate stabilization. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 74 (7): 887-935. DOI:10.1016/j.techfore.2006.05.026.

Grubler A (2006). Doing More with Less - Improving the Environment through Green Engineering. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RP-06-005. Reprinted from Environment, 48(2): 22-37 [March 2006].

Grubler A, O'Neill BC, & van Vuuren DP (2006). Avoiding hazards of best-guess climate scenarios. Nature 440 (7085) DOI:10.1038/440740a.

Riahi K, Grubler A, & Nakicenovic N (2006). IIASA Greenhouse Gas Initiative (GGI) Long-term Emissions and Climate Stabilization Scenarios. IIASA Interim Report. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: IR-06-018

Grubler A (2006). Doing more with less: Improving the environment through green engineering. Environment 48 (2): 22-37. DOI:10.3200/ENVT.48.2.22-37.

O'Neill B, Crutzen P, Grubler A, Duong MH, Keller K, Kolstad C, Koomey J, Lange A, et al. (2006). Learning and climate change. Climate Policy 6 (5): 585-589. DOI:10.1080/14693062.2006.9685623.

Riahi K, Kolp P, & Grubler A (2005). National Scenarios of Economic Activity (GDP) - A Downscaling Analysis based on SRES. IIASA Interim Report. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: IR 05-063

Grubler A (2005). Energy transitions. In: Dictionary of Energy. Eds. Cleveland, C.J. & Morris, C., pp. p. 146 Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. ISBN 0-080-44578-0

Nakicenovic N, Grubler A, Chirkov V, & Kolp P (2005). Synthetic Fuel Technology Adoption under Climatic Constraints in the Asian Region. Research study conducted for the Environmental Research Center (ERC), Tsukuba, Japan; IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria [2005]

Grubler A (2004). Technology and Global Change. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press. ISBN 7-302-05893-8

Grubler A (2004). Technology and Global Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9-780-52154332-3 DOI:10.2277/0521543320.

Grubler A (2004). Transitions in Energy Use. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RP-04-005. Reprinted from Encyclopedia of Energy, 6:163-177 [2004].

Grubler A (2004). Transitions in energy use. In: Encyclopedia of Energy. 6:163-177 [2004]: Elsevier Science.

Grubler A, Chirkov V, Nakicenovic N, & Slentoe E (2004). Long-Term Scenarios of Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the Asian Region. Final Report submitted to the Environmental Research Center (ERC), Tsukuba, Japan [2004]

Grubler A, Nakicenovic N, Alcamo J, Davis G, Fenhann J, Hare B, Mori S, Pepper B, et al. (2004). Emissions scenarios: A final response. Energy and Environment 15 (1): 11-24. DOI:10.1260/095830504322986466.

Grubler A (2003). Technology, global change and industrial ecology. In: Perspectives on Industrial Ecology. Eds. Bourg, D. & Erkman, S., Sheffield: Greenleaf Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-1874719-462

Nakicenovic N, Grubler A, Gaffin S, Jung TT, Kram T, Morita T, Pitcher H, Riahi K, et al. (2003). IPCC SRES revisited: A response. Energy & Environment 14 (2-3) DOI:10.1260/095830503765184592.

Grubler A, Nakicenovic N, & Nordhaus WD (2002). Technological Change and the Environment. Washington: Resources for the Future. ISBN 9781891853463

Grubler A (2002). Trends in Global Emissions: Carbon, Sulfur, and Nitrogen. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-02-004. Reprinted from Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change, 3:35-53 [2002].

Grubler A & Nakicenovic N (2001). Identifying dangers in an uncertain climate. Nature 412 (6842) DOI:10.1038/35083752.

Kates RW, Clark WC, Corell R, Grubler A, & Hall JM (2001). Sustainability science. Science 292 (5517): 641-642. DOI:10.1126/science.1059386.

Grubler A (2001). Trends in global emissions: Carbon, sulfur, and nitrogen. In: Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change. Eds. Munn, T., John Wiley & Sons Inc.: Vol. 3: Causes and Consequences of Global Environmental Change. ISBN 0471-97796-9

Hourcade JC, Ha-Duong M, Grubler A, & Tol RSJ (2001). INASUD project findings on integrated assessment of climate policies. Integrated Assessment 2 (1): 31-35. DOI:https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00004175.

Kates RW, Clark WC, Corell R, Hall JM, Jaeger CC, Lowe I, McCarthy JJ, Schellnhuber HJ, et al. (2001). Sustainability Science. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-01-007. Reprinted from Science, 292 (5517):641-642 [2001]

Prather M, Ehhalt D, Dentener F, Derwent R, & Grubler A (2001). Atmospheric chemistry and greenhouse gases. In: Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis, Third Assessment Report. IPCC: Working Group I of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 0521-01495-6

Schlesinger ME, Malyshev S, Rozanov EV, Yang F, Andronova NG, De Vries B, Grubler A, Jiang K, et al. (2000). Geographical Distributions of Temperature Change for Scenarios of Greenhouse Gas and Sulfur Dioxide Emissions. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 65 (2): 167-193. DOI:10.1016/S0040-1625(99)00114-6.

Nakicenovic N, Gritsevskii A, Grubler A, & Riahi K (2000). Global Natural Gas Perspectives. International Gas Union (IGU), Office of the Secretary General, Denmark and IIASA, Austria (October 2000)

Grubler A (2000). Managing the global environment. Environmental Science & Technology DOI:10.1021/es003228v.

Grubler A (2000). Managing the Global Environment. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-00-012. Reprinted from Environmental Science and Technology, 34(7) [April 1, 2000].

Grubler A (2000). Resources and society. Berg- und Hüttenmännische Monatshefte (BHM) 10: 386-394.

Nakicenovic N, Alcamo J, Grubler A, Riahi K, Roehrl RA, Rogner H-H, & Victor N (2000). Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES), A Special Report of Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80493-0

Nakicenovic N, Davidson O, Davis G, & Grubler A (2000). Summary for policy makers. In: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios. Geneva: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ISBN 92-9169-113-5

Nakicenovic N & Grubler A (2000). Energy and the Protection of the Atmosphere. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-00-018. Reprinted from International Journal of Global Energy Issues, 13(1-3):4-57 [2000].

Nakicenovic N & Grubler A (2000). Energy and the protection of the atmosphere. International Journal of Global Energy Issues 13 (1): 4-57. DOI:10.1504/IJGEI.2000.000865.

Plutzar C, Grubler A, Stojanovic V, Riedl L, & Pospischil W (2000). A GIS-based Approach for Modeling the Spatial and Temporal Development of Night-time Lights. In: Angewandte Geographische Informationsverarbeitung XII, Beiträge zum AGIT-Symposium Salzburg 2000. Eds. Strobl, J., Blaschke, T. & Griesebner, G., pp. 389-394 Heidelberg, Germany: Wichmann. ISBN 3-87907-349-X

Klaassen G, Grubler A, & Schrattenholzer L (1999). Towards New Energy Infrastructures in Eurasia: A Background Paper. IIASA Interim Report. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: IR-99-017

Grubler A, Nakicenovic N, & Victor DG (1999). Modeling technological change: Implications for the global environment. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 24: 545-569. DOI:10.1146/annurev.energy.24.1.545.

Grubler A, Nakicenovic N, & Victor DG (1999). Dynamics of energy technologies and global change. Energy Policy 27 (5): 247-280. DOI:10.1016/S0301-4215(98)00067-6.

Grubler A (1999). Global energy perspectives: 2050 and beyond. In: ENERGY - The Next Fifty Years. Paris: OECD Publication. ISBN 92-64-17016-2

Grubler A (1999). Long-Term Energy Futures: The Critical Role of Technology. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-00-002. Reprinted from Revue de l'Energie, 508:373-384 [1999].

Grubler A (1999). Long-term energy futures: The critical role of technology. Revue de l'Energie 508: 373-384.

Grubler A, Nakicenovic N, & Victor DG (1999). Dynamics of Energy Technologies and Global Change. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-99-007. Reprinted from Energy Policy, 27:247-280

Grubler A, Nakicenovic N, & Victor DG (1999). Modeling Technological Change: Implications for the Global Environment. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-00-003. Reprinted from Annual Review of Energy and the Environment, 24:545-69 [1999].

Grubler A (1998). A review of global and regional sulfur emission scenarios. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 3 (2): 383-418. DOI:10.1023/A:1009651624257.

Grubler A & Messner S (1998). Technological change and the timing of mitigation measures. Energy Economics 20 (5): 495-512. DOI:10.1016/S0140-9883(98)00010-3.

Grubler A (1998). From well or mine to the consumer: Long-term energy perspectives. Berg- und Hüttenmännische Monatshefte (BHM) 12: 449-456.

Grubler A (1998). Globale Energieperspektiven. Gas, Wasser, Abwasser 6 (98): 462-470.

Grubler A (1998). A Review of Global and Regional Sulfur Emission Scenarios. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-99-005. Reprinted from Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 3(2-4):383-418

Grubler A (1998). A Review of Global and Regional Sulfur Emission Scenarios. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 3 (2/4): 383-418. DOI:10.1023/A:1009651624257.

Grubler A (1998). Technology and Global Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-59109-0

Grubler A & Messner S (1998). Technological Change and the Timing of Mitigation Measures. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-99-001. Reprinted from Energy Economics, 20(5,6):495-512 [December 1998].

Nakicenovic N, Grubler A, & McDonald A (1998). Global Energy Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Grubler A & Gritsevskii A (1997). A Model of Endogenous Technological Change Through Uncertain Returns on Learning (R&D and Investments). In: International Workshop on Induced Technical Change and the Environment, 26-27 June 1997, Laxenburg, Austria.

Grubler A & Messner S (1996). Technological uncertainty. In: Climate Change: Integrating Science, Economics, and Policy. Eds. Nakicenovic, N., Nordhaus, W., Richels, R. & Toth, F.L., pp. 295-314 Laxenburg, Austria: International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis. DOI:CP-96-1.

Grubler A (1996). Perspectives energetiques globales a l'horizon 2050. La Lettre du Conseil Francais de l'Energie

Foray D & Grubler A (1996). Introduction: Technology and the Environment. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 53 (1): 1-2. DOI:10.1016/S0040-1625(96)90003-7.

Foray D & Grubler A (1996). Technology and the Environment: An Overview. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-97-005. Reprinted from Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 53(1):3-13 [September 1996].

Foray D & Grubler A (1996). Technology and the environment: An overview. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 53 (1): 3-13.

Grubler A (1996). Time for a Change: On the Patterns of Diffusion of Innovation. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-97-003. Reprinted from Daedelus, 125(3):19-42 [1996].

Grubler A (1996). Time for a change: On the patterns of diffusion of innovation. Daedalus 125 (3): 19-42.

Grubler A, Jefferson M, & Nakicenovic N (1996). Global Energy Perspectives: A Summary of the Joint Study by IIASA and World Energy Council. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-96-010. Reprinted from Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 51(3):237-264 [1996].

Grubler A, Jefferson M, & Nakicenovic N (1996). Global energy perspectives: A summary of the joint study by the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis and World Energy Council. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 51 (3): 237-264.

Grubler A & Nakicenovic N (1996). Decarbonizing the Global Energy System. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-97-006. Reprinted from Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 53(1):97-110 [September 1996].

Grubler A & Nakicenovic N (1996). Decarbonizing the global energy system. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 53 (1): 97-110.

Grubler A & Nakicenovic N (1996). Global energy perspectives 2050 [Globale Energieperspektiven 2050]. Energiewirtschaftliche Tagesfragen 46 (5): 304-312.

Michaelis L, Bleviss D, Orfeuil J-P, Pischinger R, Nakicenovic N, & Grubler A (1996). Mitigation options in the transportation sector. In: Climate Change 1995: Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change. Eds. Watson, R.T., Zinyowera, M.C. & Moss, R.H., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-56431-X

Nakicenovic N & Grubler A (1996). Energy and the Protection of the Atmosphere. United Nations Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development

Nakicenovic N, Grubler A, Ishitani H, Johansson TB, Marland G, Moreira JR, & Rogner H-H (1996). Energy Primer. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-97-001. Reprinted from Climate Change 1995; International Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 75-92 [1996]

Nakicenovic N, Grubler A, Ishitani H, Johansson TB, Marland G, Moreira JR, & Rogner H-H (1996). Energy primer. In: Climate Change 1995: Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change. Eds. Watson, R.T., Zinyowera, M.C. & Moss, R.H., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-56431-X

Grubler A, Jefferson M, & Nakicenovic N (1995). A Summary of the Joint IIASA and WEC Study on Long-Term Energy Perspectives. IIASA Working Paper. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: WP-95-102

Grubler A (1995). Time for a Change: Rates of Diffusion of Ideas, Technologies, and Social Behaviors. IIASA Working Paper. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: WP-95-082

Grubler A (1995). Industrialization as a Historical Phenomenon. IIASA Working Paper. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: WP-95-029

Alcamo J, Bouwman A, Edmonds J, Grubler A, Morita T, & Sugandhy A (1995). An Evaluation of the IPCC IS92 Emission Scenarios. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-95-010. Reprinted from Climate Change 1994. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change and an Evaluation of the IPCC 1992 IS92 Emission Scenarios, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 247-304

Alcamo J, Bouwman A, Edmonds J, Grubler A, Morita T, & Sugandhy A (1995). An evaluation of the IPCC IS92 emission scenarios. In: Climate Change 1994. Radiative Forcing of Climate Change and an Evaluation of the IPCC 1992 IS92 Emission Scenarios. Eds. Houghton, J.T., Filho, L.G. Meira, Bruce, J.P., Lee, H., Callander, B.A., Haites, E.F., Harris, N. & Maskell, K., pp. 247-304 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-55055-6

Ausubel JH & Grubler A (1995). Working Less and Living Longer: Long-term Trends in Working Time and Time Budgets. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-96-004. Reprinted from Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 50(3):195-213

Ausubel JH & Grubler A (1995). Working less and living longer: Long-term trends in working time and time budgets. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 50 (3): 195-213.

Büttner T & Grubler A (1995). The Birth of a "Green" Generation? Generational Dynamics of Resource Consumption Patterns. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-96-003. Reprinted from Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 50:113-134 [1995]

Büttner T & Grubler A (1995). The birth of a "green generation"? Generational dynamics of resource consumption patterns. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 50 (2): 113-134. DOI:10.1016/0040-1625(95)00052-C.

Grubler A, Jefferson M, McDonald A, Messner S, Nakicenovic N, Rogner H-H, & Schrattenholzer L (1995). Global Energy Perspectives to 2050 and Beyond. Joint IIASA and World Energy Council Report, World Energy Council

Grubler A & Kirsch D (1995). Social behavior: Limiting global change or limits for mitigation? In: Global Change, Proceedings of the First Demetra Meeting. Eds. Speranza, A., Tibaldi, S. & Fantechi, R., pp. 392-409 Brussels, Belgium: European Commission. ISBN 92-826-7757-5

Grubler A (1994). A Comparison of Global and Regional Energy Emission Scenarios. IIASA Working Paper. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: WP-94-132

Büttner T & Grubler A (1994). The Birth of a "Green" Generation? Generational Dynamics of Resource Consumption Patterns. IIASA Working Paper. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: WP-94-079

Ausubel JH & Grubler A (1994). Working Less and Living Longer: Long-Term Trends in Working Time and Time Budgets. IIASA Working Paper. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: WP-94-099

Grubler A & Nakicenovic N (1994). International Burden Sharing in Greenhouse Gas Reduction. IIASA Research Report. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-94-009

Grubler A (1994). Das Paradoxon der wissenschaftlich-technischen Entwicklung. In: Spannungsfeld Umwelt und Entwicklung. Eds. Grubler, A., Höll, O., Lichem, W. & Rakos, C., pp. 78-92 Vienna, Austria: Jugend & Volk. ISBN 3-85191-020-6

Grubler A (1994). Energiestrategien und CO2-Minderung. In: Gesellschaftliche Aspekte von Klimaänderungen. Eds. Fischer, W. & Schütz, H., Berichte aus der ökologischen Forschung, 13 . pp. 36-71 Jülich, Germany: Forschungszentrum Jülich, Programmgruppe Technologiefolgenforschung. ISBN 978-3-89336-131-1

Grubler A (1994). Energy strategies and CO2 mitigation. In: Social Aspects of Climate Change. Eds. Fischer, W. & Schuetz, H., Juelich: Konferenzen des Forschungszentrums Juelich.

Grubler A (1994). Global energy strategies. In: Handbuch der Umwelttechnik 1994. Linz: Trend Commerz Gesellschaft mbH.

Grubler A (1994). Industrialization as a Historical Phenomenon. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-95-009. Reprinted from Industrial Ecology and Global Change, R. Socolow, C. Andrews, F. Berkhout, and V. Thomas (eds), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 43-68

Grubler A (1994). Industrialization as a historical phenomenon. In: Industrial Ecology and Global Change. Eds. Socolow, R., Andrews, C., Berkhout, F. & Thomas, V., pp. 43-68 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Grubler A (1994). Technology and global change: Land-use, past and present. In: Changes in Land Use and Land Cover: A Global Perspective. Eds. Meyer, W.B. & Turner, B.L., pp. 287-328 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Grubler A (1994). The transportation sector: Growing demand and emissions. Pacific and Asian Journal of Energy 3 (2)

Grubler A, Hoell O, Lichem W, & Rakos C (1994). Environment and Development. J&V.

Grubler A, Nakicenovic N, & Schaefer A (1993). Summary of IPCC/EIS-IIASA International Workshop on Energy-Related Greenhouse Gases Reduction and Removal. 1-2 October 1992. IIASA Status Report. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: SR-93-001

Grubler A (1993). Energy and environment: Post UNCED. In: Road from Rio : environment and development policy issues in Asia. Eds. Ghosh, P. & Jaitly, A., pp. 104-112 New Delhi, India: Tata Energy Research Institute. ISBN 81-85419-02-7

Grubler A (1993). Energy for the 21st century: Towards improved efficiency and environmental compatibility. In: Energy Efficiency 2000, 8-10 March 1993, Lausanne, Switzerland.

Grubler A (1993). The Transportation Sector: Growing Demand and Emissions. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-94-005. Reprinted from Pacific and Asian Journal of Energy, 3(2):179-199

Grubler A (1993). The Transportation Sector: Growing Demand and Emissions. In: Seminar on Population and Natural Resources, 30 September - 1 October 1993, TERI, New Delhi, India.

Nakicenovic N, Grubler A, Inaba A, Messner S, Nilsson S, Nishimura Y, Rogner H-H, Schaefer A, et al. (1993). Long-Term Strategies for Mitigating Global Warming. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-93-011. Reprinted from Energy, 18(15):401-609

Nakicenovic N, Grubler A, Inaba A, Messner S, Nilsson S, Nishimura Y, Rogner H-H, Schäfer A, et al. (1993). Long-term strategies for mitigating global warming. Energy 18 (5): 401-609. DOI:10.1016/0360-5442(93)90019-A.

Grubler A (1992). Technology and Global Change: Land Use, Past and Present. IIASA Working Paper. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: WP-92-002

Grubler A, Nakicenovic N, & Schaefer A (1992). Dynamics of Transport and Energy Systems. History of Development and a Scenario for the Future. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-93-019. Reprinted from Energy and Life, Proceedings of the 15th WEC Congress, Madrid, 20-25 September 1992

Grubler A & Nakicenovic N (1991). Evolution of Transport Systems: Past and Future. IIASA Research Report. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-91-008

Foray D & Grubler A (1991). Morphological Analysis, Diffusion, and Patterns of Technological Evolution: Ferrous Casting in France and the FRG. In: Diffusion of Technologies and Social Behavior. Eds. Nakicenovic, N. & Grubler, A., pp. 407-431 Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany: Springer. ISBN 978-3-662-02702-8 DOI:10.1007/978-3-662-02700-4_16.

Foray D & Grubler A (1991). Towards a taxonomy of technological change. IIASA Report. IIASA, Laxenburg Austria

Grubler A (1991). Diffusion: Long-term patterns and discontinuities. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 39 (1-2): 159-180. DOI:10.1016/0040-1625(91)90034-D.

Grubler A (1991). Diffusion: Long-term patterns and discontinuities. In: International Conference on Diffusion Technologies and Social Behaviour: Theories, Case Studies and Policy Applications, 14-16 June 1989, IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria.

Grubler A (1991). Energy in the 21st Century: From Resource to Environmental and Lifestyle Constraints. Entropie: revue scientifique et technique de thermodynamique 164/65: 29-33.

Grubler A (1991). Introduction to Diffusion Theory. In: Computer Integrated Manufacturing, Volume 3. Models, Case Studies and Forecasts of Diffusion. Eds. Ayres, R., Haywood, W. & Tchijov, I., pp. 3-52 London, UK: Chapman and Hall.

Grubler A & Fujii Y (1991). Inter-generational and Spatial Equity Issues of Carbon Accounts. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-92-006. Reprinted from Energy, 16 (11/12):1397-1416

Grubler A & Fujii Y (1991). Inter-generational and spatial equity issues of carbon accounts. Energy 16 (11-12): 1397-1416. DOI:10.1016/0360-5442(91)90009-B.

Grubler A & Nakicenovic N (1991). Energy and the environment in the 21st century. IIASA Report. IIASA, Laxenburg Austria

Grubler A & Nakicenovic N (1991). Long Waves, Technology Diffusion, and Substitution. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-91-017. Reprinted from Review, XIV(2):313-342 [Spring 1991].

Grubler A & Nakicenovic N (1991). Long waves, technology diffusion, and substitution. Review (Fernand Braudel Center) 14 (2): 313-343.

Nakicenovic N & Grubler A (1991). Diffusion of Technologies and Social Behavior. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-53846-1

Foray D & Grubler A (1990). Morphological analysis, diffusion and lockout of technologies: Ferrous casting in France and the FRG. Research Policy 19 (6): 535-550. DOI:10.1016/0048-7333(90)90011-T.

Astakhov A, Grubler A, & Mookhin A (1990). Technology Diffusion in the Coal-Mining Industry of the USSR - An Interim Assessment. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-91-004. Reprinted from Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 38(3):223-256

Foray D & Grubler A (1990). Morphological Analysis, Diffusion and Lock-out of Technologies: Ferrous Casting in France and the FRG. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-91-001. Reprinted from Research Policy, 19(6) [December 1990].

Grubler A (1990). The Rise and Fall of Infrastructures: Dynamics of Evolution and Technological Change in Transport. Heidelberg: Physica-Verlag. ISBN 3-7908-0479-7

Grubler A (1990). Technology Diffusion in a Long-Wave Context: The Case of the Steel and Coal Industries (Chapter 8). In: Life Cycles and Long Waves. Lecture Notes in Economics and Mathematical Systems, 340 . pp. 117-146 Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany: Springer. ISBN 3-540-52473-8

Grubler A & Nakicenovic N (1990). Economic Map of Europe: Transport, Communication and Energy Infrastructures in a Wider Europe (Annex: European Spatial and Temporal Dynamics - Past and a Scenario for the Future). International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria.

Grubler A & Nowotny H (1990). Towards the Fifth Kondratiev Upswing: Elements of an Emerging New Growth Phase and Possible Development Trajectories. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-90-007. Reprinted from International Journal of Technology Management, 5(4) [1990].

Grubler A & Nowotny H (1990). Towards the fifth Kondratiev upswing: elements of an emerging new growth phase and possible development trajectories. International Journal of Technology Management 5 (4): 431-471. DOI:10.1504/IJTM.1990.025914.

Grubler Arnulf (1990). Perspectives à longue échéance de l'approvisionnement énergétique et le rôle potentiel du gaz naturel. Gas, Wasser, Abwasser 70 (4): 259-272.

Nakicenovic N & Grubler A (1990). Development of energy and transport systems. In: Economics, Modelling, Planning and Management of Energy. Eds. Rogner, H., Khan, A.M. & Furlan, G., pp. 80-115 Singapore: World Scientific Publishing. ISBN 9-971-50949-0

Nakicenovic N, Grubler A, Bodda L, & Gilli PV (1990). Technological Progress, Structural Change and Efficient Energy Use: Trends Worldwide and in Austria. Schriftenreihe des Verbundkonzerns (6). Vienna, Austria: Verbundgesellschaft.

Nakicenovic N, Grubler A, Bodda L, & Gilli PV (1989). Technological Progress, Structural Change and Efficient Energy Use: Trends Worldwide and in Austria. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria

Astakhov A, Grubler A, & Mookhin A (1989). Technology Diffusion in the Coal Mining Industry of the USSR: An Interim Assessment. IIASA Working Paper. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: WP-89-046

Grubler A (1989). Langfristaussichten der Energieversorgung und die potentielle Rolle von Erdgas. In: 40. Sitzung der Studiengruppe Energieperspektiven, 18 May 1989, Baden, Austria.

Ausubel JH, Grubler A, & Nakicenovic N (1988). Carbon Dioxide Emissions in a Methane Economy. IIASA Research Report (Reprint). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-88-007. Reprinted from Climatic Change, 12 (3). pp. 245-263

Ausubel JH, Grubler A, & Nakicenovic N (1988). Carbon dioxide emissions in a methane economy. Climatic Change 12 (3): 245-263. DOI:10.1007/BF00139432.

Grubler A (1988). Der Kampf ums Dasein: Eine Analyse der langfristigen Entwicklungvon Infrastruktur und Transporttechnologien. Schweizer Ingenieur und Architekt 108 (8): 197-207. DOI:10.5169/seals-85647.

Grubler A & Nakicenovic N (1988). The dynamic evolution of methane technologies. In: The Methane Age. Eds. Lee, T.H., Linden, H.R., Dreyfus, D.A. & Vasko, T., Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-277-2745-9

Posch M, Grubler A, & Nakicenovic N (1988). Methods of Estimating S-Shaped Growth Functions: Algorithms and Computer Programs. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria, mimeo.

Grubler A & Nakicenovic N (1987). The Dynamic Evolution of Methane Technologies. IIASA Working Paper. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: WP-87-002

Grubler A (1987). Aufstieg und Fall von Infrastrukturen: Eine Analyse der langfristigen Entwicklung von Verkehrsinfrastruktur und Transporttechnologien. Der öffentliche Sektor - Forschungsmemoranden 13 (3/4): 52-83.

Grubler A (1987). Vom Erdöl- zum Methanzeitalter: Betrachtungen zur langfristigen Technologieentwicklung und der potentiellen Rolle von Erdgas im 21. Jahrhundert. In: Jahresversammlung der USOGAS und des Verbandes der Schweizerischen Gasindustrie, 20 May 1987, Zug, Switzerland.

Grubler A & Amann M (1986). Grenzkosten der Reduktion von SO2-Emissionen in Österreich. Wirtschaftspolitische Blaetter 33 (4): 467-484.

Grubler A, Katsonis F, Mazzoni B, & Wooding S (1984). A Proposal for an Environmental Decision Support System at the Regional Level: Concepts, Support Methodology, Tools and their Terminology. IIASA Collaborative Paper. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: CP-84-038

Astakhov A & Grubler A (1984). Resource Requirements and Economics of the Coal-Mining Process: A Comparative Analysis of Mines in Selected Countries. IIASA Research Report. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: RR-84-013

Grenon M & Grubler A (1983). Energy and Mineral Resources Data Bases. IIASA Collaborative Paper. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: CP-83-002

Grubler A, Hoffman R, & McInnis B (1982). Process Information Systems: A Synthesis of Two Independent Approaches. IIASA Collaborative Paper. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: CP-82-024

Grubler A (1980). Resource Requirements for Industrial Processes: A WELMM Comparison of Energy Chains. IIASA Working Paper. IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria: WP-80-050