Vladimir Stolbovoi and Igor Savin

This section describes relief features of the country. Such a description in Russia is associated with traditional morphosculpture and morphostructure approach that is an expert-based generic interpretation of the territory (Voskresensky et al., 1980). Over the past decade a morphometry-based approach has become very popular around the world. The advantage of this approach is that delineation of relief features is based on well-established and easily distinguished criteria. It results in establishment of standard and uniform relief characteristics essential for any land resources appraisal. This method has been already successfully tested for Russia (Stolbovoi, 1996; Stolbovoi and Savin, 1996) and for other parts of the world. Our study stems from the latest version of the SOTER database developed for Asia (SOTER, 1995).

Russia's relief is complicated. The territory is represented by 18 geomorphological countries, which are broken into 51 provinces according to different morphostructures (Voskresensky et al, 1980). These relief classes have been distinguished on the basis of Earth's crust structure, the intensity of modern tectonic movements, as well as denudation and accumulation processes that result in a varying topography. While it has undergone a number of modifications during its development, Russia is now is made up of the following components:

• Shields (cratons);
• Mountains:
• Alpine-Gimalay belt;
• Tien-Shan uplifting belt;
• Middle and East Siberia;
• Pacific Ocean belt.

Shields

The Russian shield occupies the European part of the country and is the largest of the cratons. The original Precambrian rocks form it; these crop out only in the northern (Fennoscandian geomorphological country) and southern (Donetsky kryazh) parts of the region. The relief of the Russian shield is conspicuous on the map as plains with flat and slightly undulating slopes; in some places wetlands (P1g, f, we) are associated with undulating plains (P1u). Other parts of the Russian shield have been mapped as plain, with flat slopes at the northern part and slightly undulating slopes at the central and southern parts. There are some local regions with more undulating slope (P2u), which are covered by a number of erosion surfaces (Middle-Russian and pre-Ural uplands).
The relief of the southern part of Fennoscandia was described as selgovy which is characterized by an abundance of low ridges, elongated in one direction (R6u); rock outcrops are separated by lowlands with lakes and swamps (P1f,we). This part of the country has been formed by irregular shield fluctuations, mainly light lifts that were accompanied by long-term continental denudation, destruction of mountain relief formed before, and transportation of considerable amounts of eroded rocks outside shield boundaries. The typical features are regular alternation of positive and negative large relief forms oriented mainly in a northwest direction, which corresponds to extension of hard rock structures.
The relief of Donetsky kryazh presents low hills with rolling slopes (H6r).
The West-Siberian shield is a basin of alluvial-lacustrine sediment accumulations. These sediments form a rather level surface, with an altitude of less than 200 m a.s.l. The sequence of uplands (Siberian ouvals) going in a latitudinal direction subdivides the West-Siberian shield into two parts. They have different orographic features and a different composition of loose rock deposits. The process of the current relief formation of West Siberia began in post-Paleogenic time, after regression of the sea. However, some relief elements have an earlier genesis. Lake-river deposits were common during the Neogene times. During the Pleistocene, relief was shaped by sea transgressions and glaciations, some of which overlapped in time. Glaciers descending from the Ural and Putoran mountains formed a hilly relief on the edges of the lowland that is common in territories where glacial deposits accumulated. Invasion of the sea took place periodically in the late Pleistocene and Holocene. As a result, a series of sea terraces has been formed on Yamal, Gydan, and Tasovski Peninsulas.
To the South, from the Siberian ouvals, the relief has been developed by the influence of alternating humid and arid climates. Both denudation and accumulative reliefs are widely spread throughout the region.
The major exogenous process in West Siberia is at present driven by development of the river basin. It is overlapped with different cryogenic features in the tundra, forest-tundra and northern taiga bio-climatic zones. Suffusion and eolian processes are common in the Southern part of the forest-steppe and steppe zones. Because of the flat relief (slopes do not exceed 1.50) processes of erosion are not widely observed.
The largest portion of the shield is identified as flat and wetland (P1f/we,w). The relief with slightly undulating slopes (P1g) can be found along the main rivers.
The southern part of the West-Siberian shield is characterized by an abundance of plains. Wetlands do not occur in this territory, as the undulating slopes are subject to sufficient surface drainage.
To the south, the West-Siberian plain is altered by Kazakhsky upland, which is identified as a plateau with undulating slopes (T3u). The height of the plateau is more than 600 m a.s.l., which is higher than platform plains. However, it is considerably lower than mountainous elevations. This type of relief does not have deep and sharply countered tectonic depressions; the shield represents a monolithic and massive structure. Rolling bald mountain plains prevail in the region. This relief is only occasionally interrupted by low mountain uplifts. An arid climate, together with widely spread salinity of loose deposits and groundwater, stimulate processes of chemical weathering that cause detachment of rocks and intensification of wind erosion.
The Turan shield is a large craton situated between the Caspian Sea and Balkhash Lake. This shield has a relatively low hypsometric level (less than 300 m a.s.l.); absolute height increases in the eastward direction.
Turanskaya plain is located in the middle latitudes, considerably far from the oceans. Low plain (P1f) and plateau (T3u) are common for the plain. Inselbergs and chains of hills (up to 1,000 m a.s.l.) appear occasionally on it. River valleys are undeveloped. Amu-Darya, Syr-Darya, and many other rivers incise the plain's surface. The combination of an arid climate, sandy-clay deposits, and sparse vegetation promotes the development of aeolian processes and deflation (P1f/du).
Ancient terraces of the Caspian Sea are developed at the western part of the shield. Where they are closed to the sea, they have the features of wetlands (P1f/we). Dune relief can be seen where sand deposits prevail.
The Lensko-Viluyskaya, Sredne-Indigirskaya, Kolymskaya, and Anadyrskaya alluvial plains represent the main East-Siberian shields. The relief of these plains is frequently complicated by thermocarst landforms. Low level plains have a lot of lakes and are identified as wetlands (P1w) in the northern part of East Siberia.

Mountains

Alpine-Gimalay Belt

The Ural mountain system extends for almost 4,000 kilometers (km). It starts as huge glacial domes (1,590 m a.s.l.) in the north of Novaya Zemlya and ends as the low Mugojars mountains (460-600 m a.s.l.) in the south. Orographic waves, expressed by alternation of high and low mountains, can be seen in the longitudinal profile. As one proceeds northward, the low mountains of Mugojar (M9r) are transformed into the middle-range mountains of the Southern Urals (M10s). These are then replaced by the low mountains (M9s) of the middle Urals, which are, in turn, replaced by the higher ridges of the northern Urals (M10r). The highest mountain, Narodnaya (1,894 m a.s.l.), is situated in the polar Urals. Flattened surfaces of ancient peneplanes are located along both sides of the Ural Ridge. They are dissected by erosion. Quaternary glaciation has played an important role in the relief formation of the northern Urals and Novaya Zemlya. Glaciers have existed in Novaya Zemlya since the late Pleistocene. The Carpets and the Crimea, as well as the Caucasus, are the result of alpine orogenic movements.
The Carpets extend as a huge band, thousands of kilometers long. They start as the low mountains of the Small Carpets (761 m a.s.l.) in the west and end near the Iron Gates of the Danube valley. Along almost all of the length of the Carpets can be seen several parallel or coulisse-like ridges. Their height varies from 700 to 2,663 m a.s.l. The western part of the Eastern Carpets (270 km long) is situated on the territory of the former USSR. The highest point is Goverla mountain (2,061 m a.s.l.), located at Chernogora Ridge. The width of the mountain band varies from about 110 to 140 km. Overthrust-folded and folded-block structures form the basis of the geological composition of the Carpets. The most common formation is composed of sedimentary rocks of the Cretaceous and Paleogene, smashed into folds. Relief has mostly longitudinal-zonal morphostructure and directly reflects the geological features. The highest parts of the Carpets are identified as mountains with steep slopes (M10t). Other parts are distinguished as mountainous highlands with rolling slopes (L8sr).
The Crimea has a similar interpretation on the map. The relief of these mountains is strongly complicated by questa and karst landforms (L7cu,ka).
The Caucasus mountain system is a chain of ridges elongated in subparallel direction. The meganticlinorium of the Great Caucasus is more lifted in the central part and lowers to northwestern and southeastern endings of the mountains. Southward of this zone, the beyond-Caucasus intermontane troughs Rionsky and Kurinsky are extended. They are divided by the transverse Dzirulsky projection of the Palaeozoic foundation. Longitudinal megamorphostructures of the Caucasus are crossed by transverse Main Transcaucasus upheaval, going through the Dzirulsky projection. Less significant transverse structural zones appear westward and eastward. They descend step-like in the directions of the Black Sea and the Caspian depression. Intensive neotectonic movements are accompanied by volcanic eruptions in some places. As a result, typical volcanic and subvolcanic relief forms have been created. Everywhere, the relief is transformed by different exogenous processes (marine, fluvial, glacial, slope).
The main part of the Caucasus has been identified as mountains, with steep and very steep slopes. The altitude of their peaks is more than 5,000 m a.s.l. (M12t,v). Mountainous highland (L8s) and ridges with rolling slopes (R8r) surround this territory. Alpine relief - steep slopes of ridges with unconsolidated glacial deposits in valleys - is abundant in the highest region of the Caucasus (R8t). Questa forms of relief frequently appear at the northern slopes of the Caucasus mountain chain (M12cu). Modern mud-volcano forms of mesorelief take place both at the westernmost and easternmost parts of the chain. The Armenian plateau is characterized by a prevalence of complex relief forms (T3ri,in). It corresponds to an internal part of the Alpine orogenic zone, with contrast neotectonic movements of high amplitude and intense neovulcanism. The rest of the block-folding constructions with the same name can be noticed in the beyond-Caucasus highland (L8s). Mountain highland and plateau, with rolling and steep slopes, are the main landforms. Some isolated mountain massifs (M10,11,t,v) as well as uniform slopes (G7,8u) and depressions (D3,4g) appear frequently.

Tien-Shan Belt

The Tien-Shan uplifting mountains system has a similar physiography (M12t,v). The distinguishing features of these mountains are high elevation and vast areas of high mountain relief. The relief is determined by linearly extended mountain ridges, often branching in a complex way. Valleys of erosion-tectonic origin divide ridges. In some locations, valleys have expanded and have acquired the shape of intermontane depressions with flat bottoms (D3f). The structural plan of the mountains is inherited from Caledonian folding, but fold formation and magmatism took place also in later epochs. Tectonic movements are active in the mountains at present; the high seismicity of the area and the distortion of quaternary accumulative surfaces indicate it. A small amount of precipitation limits river erosive activity, as well as slope and karst processes. Wind activity plays a considerable role in the accumulation of aeolic deposits. A significant part of this region has been distinguished as mountainous highlands with steep slopes (L8,t). The Tien-Shan mountains frequently transform to surrounding plains through uniform mountain slopes (G7u), which are constituted by loess.
The Pamir-Ginducush system is composed of highly uplifted mountains with steep and very steep slopes (M12t,v). The southern part of the mountains is located to the southward from the Alay valley. It differs from the Middle Asian Mountain systems in its late completion of the mesocenozoic geosynclinal development of the main geological structures. Relief of the Pamir and Tadjik highlands (L8s) matches alpine folding. Certain transformations of the structural plain took place during the alpine period. Thus, the marginal ridges of Northern Pamir (R8s) were formed in late alpine time. Differences in relief structure are determined by the neostructural plain and the amplitude of neotectonic movements and are well expressed. Some parts of this territory have been indicated as mountain depressions (D5f), plateau (T5g), and uniform slopes (G7,8g). The main peaks of these mountains are characterized by an abundance of alpine relief forms.
The Altay-Saiany-Bargusyn mountain belt is the chain of ridges associated with depressions. This mountain system occupies all of the southern part of Siberia from the basin of Zaisan Lake to the Far East. The Altay and Tuvan mountains and the mountains of Zabaikalie extend to Mongolia. The formation of mountain relief took place simultaneously in the whole area and continues at present. Its ongoing nature is indicated by the region's high seismicity. However, the intensity of tectonic movements in different mountain structures is not the same. Exogenous relief-forming processes have a lot of common features. Some of them are represented by glaciations that took place many times. This mountain belt has been mapped as high mountains and ridges with steep and very steep slopes (M11t,v). They are surrounded by mountainous highlands with steep slopes and escarpment zones (L8t,cu). Some of the largest depressions (Minusinskaya, Tuvinskaya) are distinguished (D2g) but others are too small to be delineated solely.

Middle and East Siberia

The physiography of East Siberia is characterized by a prevalence of plains with undulating slopes and elevation near 1,000-2,000 m a.s.l. A significant part of the region is plateau, with rolling and steep slopes (T3r,t) both at the southernmost and northernmost regions. Mountain depressions (D3f) with flat and undulating slopes are distinguished in some places. The main parts of Verkhoyansky Ridge as well as the Pacific coastal chain of ridges have been interpreted as mountains with steep slopes (M10t).

Pacific Ocean Belt

The mountains and lowlands of the Far East occupy a wide sector of the eastern end of the Eurasian continent. Currently, there are no volcanic processes in the southern part of the Far East. Intensive processes of chemical and physical weathering are common for the region. They are caused by seasonal fluctuation of temperatures and humidity. Wide fluctuations in river levels and deep discharges assist active water erosion. The late melting of deep soil horizons, the deep thickness of the active layer, and permanent soil wetness all determine the high intensity of slope processes. The denudation rate is inhibited by a low mean elevation of the territory above the valleys' bottoms and sea level, by numerous intermontane depressions collecting discharge, and by prevalence of denudation surfaces, within which hard solid rocks are covered by a protective shield of eluvio-slope deposits. Glacial denudation played an important role in the Pleistocene.
The Kamchatka Peninsula and the Kuril chain of islands are the regions of modern volcanic activity. The physiography of this territory is characterized by the prevalence of mountain ridges with isolated volcanic mountains (M9ri) and uniform slopes (G7s).
The largest coastal region of Kamchatka has been distinguished as flat plains (P1f). The general features of the Kamchatsko-Kurilskaya transition zone indicate it to be a plateau (T2g) that is a part of the Asian continent. The Koryak plateau does not have active volcanoes and is less seismic than Kamchatka Peninsula. More than 200 volcanoes (60 active) exist on Kamchatka Peninsula and the Kurilsky Islands (I8s). Kamchatsko-Kurilskaya country can be generally characterised as a region with maximum intensity of vertical dissection of the surface. It is moderately ridged (R8s).
The relief of Sakhalin Island is characterised by a regular combination of mountainous highland (L8s) and lowlands. Moderately steep ridges (R8s) were distinguished in the Southern part of the island. The plains have mainly low elevation (up to 600 m a.s.l.), except the very edge of the north-eastern part of Schmidt Peninsula. A weakly dissected plain (P1f) extends longitudinally from the North to the South of Sakhalin. The valleys of the Tym and the Poronay rivers occupy it. Along both sides of this plain, mountainous highlands are situated.

References

Engelen V.W.P. van and T.T. Wen. 1993. Global and National Soil and Terrain Digital Databases (SOTER). Procedures Manual (revised version). ISRIC, Wageningen, Netherlands, 115 pp.

ESRI. 1993. Digital Chart of the World for Use with ARC/INFO, Data Dictionary. ESRI, Inc., Redlands, CA, USA.

SOTER (Global and National Soil and Terrain Digital Databases).1995. Procedures Manual. ISRIC, Wageningen, Netherlands.

Nefedova E.A. 1995. Cartographic projections for the USSR maps and Russia. In K.A. Salischev, Geographical Cartography (to 90th - anniversary). Russian Geographical Society, Moscow Centre. 183 pp. [In Russian]

Stolbovoi V. 1996. Draft Physiographic Map of the Former Soviet Union and Mongolia at Scale 1:5 Millions. AGLS Working Paper. FAO, Rome.

Stolbovoi V.S. and I.Y. Savin. 1996. Experience of RUSOTER Digital Database Compilation. Pochvovedenie 11:1295-1302. [In Russian]

Voskresensky S.S., O.K. Leontiev, and A.I. Spiridonov. 1980. Geomorphological Regionalization of the USSR. Nauka, Moscow.

Top of Page