Land Resources of Russia

FOREST - Description
Alexander Isaev and Anatoli Shvidenko

Forest is a vegetation type that is composed of trees, bushes, herbs and other plants (mosses, lichens) and that includes animals and microorganisms interrelated in their development and interacting with each other and environments. A major component of forest is standing trees. Forest is an important part of the biosphere, and the source of many resources: industrial, food, fodder, and medicinal. Being morphologically and biologically stable, forests are evolving over time and space in response to environmental changes. At the same time, the forest influences the environment. The forest, as a self-regulating system, tends to reach dynamic equilibrium by exchanging matter and energy with the environment. This process is performed through the mechanisms of natural selection and is accompanied by the evolution of all components of forest biogeocoenosis. Forest greatly affects the formation of water and thermal regimes of the territory, the transformation and redistribution of substances between components of the forest ecosystem and elements of the forest landscape, soil formation, etc. Forest exerts the defining influence on the water balance of the territory, affecting the hydrological regime of rivers and water reservoirs. Increasing a forested area by 10% in a plain part of European Russia leads to a growth in annual precipitation of 10-15 millimeters (mm) on average. The water-regulating role of the forest consists of reducing surface and increasing underground runoffs. Forest shelterbelts protect soils against erosion and smooth unfavorable climate impacts. The healthful, cleaning, restorative, cultural, and aesthetic aspects of the forest are valuable.

Forest occurs in all geographic zones from the sub-Arctic to the subtropics in Russia. The hydro-thermal ratio and climate continentality are the major factors affecting the extent of the forest, its tree composition, and its productivity. Both factors follow geographical zonality and altitudinal belts. Arctic and sub-Arctic deserts are treeless. Small forests (about 4 million ha) penetrate the Arctic coast of European Russia and the tundra zone of Siberia and the Far East along river valleys. Forest expands up to 71deg 30' N (the Khatanga River Basin in the north of Krasnoyarskiy Krai). In the northern part of the forest zone, treeless territories appear. They are represented by dwarf vegetation, bushes, mosses, light forests, and sparse forest. Southward of the tundra, forest-tundra and northern taiga light forests occupy about 143 million ha. Stand density and productivity increase from north to south.

Forests are most common in sub-zones of taiga; middle taiga accounts for 461 million ha and southern taiga for 128 million ha. About 76% of the total forest area is situated in these two sub-zones. In the European Russia, fir and pine forests, with considerable areas occupied by early successions of birch and aspen forests, dominate on the Al-Fe-humus and texture-differentiated soils. In the Ural and West Siberia, considerable areas are covered by dark coniferous forests of Siberian spruce, cedar, and Siberian pine and fir, which are developed on burozems or metamorphic soils. Vast territories of the northern taiga are composed of pine and larch forest on the north of the Enisey River. Al-Fe-humus and metamorphic soils dominate in this territory. The mountains of South Siberia and the Far East are occupied by dark coniferous forests. Forest in the Altai and the Sayan mountains are dominated by Siberian spruce, cedar, pine, and Siberian fir. Spruce and fir forests are composed of spruce, Khingam fir, and other species of fir. They are developed on metamorphic soils to the east up to the Sikhote-Alin and Sakhalin. In the Amur Region and to the south of the Amur River, the unique cedar-broad-leaved formation of Korean cedar pine, spruce, firs, and broad-leaved tree species occurs on metamorphic and Al-Fe-humus soils. Upper forest belts of mountains from Transbaikalia to the east and north-east are often occupied by stone birch forests that transform into Siberian dwarf-pine elfin woods and pre-alpine vegetation of herbs and shrubs growing on thin, often rubbly, substrates.

Russian forests are prone to numerous disturbances such as wild fires, insect invasions, and diseases. About 60% of the forested area of the country is protected against fires. The State Forest Guard and Specialized Regional Units of "Rosavialesookhrana" (forest fire control by means of aircraft) involve the local population in controlling forest fires. About 15,000-30,000 forest fires covering nearly 500,000-3,000,000 ha are registered annually. In the years with a medium level of fire risk, the Forest Guard provides a sufficient level of fire control. In the extremely dry years, which recur every 10-15 years, fires run out of control and become a kind of catastrophic calamity. During the last such dry year (1998), vegetation fires covered 9.5 million ha of Asian Russia. According to remote-sensing data, timber losses exceeded 500 million m^3. Insect invasions and diseases occur every 10-15 years and can occupy millions of hectares. Areas of pest and disease eruption accounted for, on average, about 3 to 4 million ha per year over the last decades. Losses of forest caused by these phenomena are comparable with those of fires. Forest protection measures(air- and land-based) are taken in an area of 350,000-900,000 ha each year.

Russian forests have changed considerably because of reformation of the land use system and depleting felling over the last three centuries. From 1700-1900, about 70 million ha were deforested in European Russia; the forest area shrank from 19% to 10%. Over the past 40 years, afforested lands have increased by 79.9 million ha. This revival is owing to forests' great capacity for self-renewal, to significant reduction of fires during this period, and to vast plantations of trees (e.g, 18.3 million ha of forest plantations were registered as of 1 January 2000). At the same time, forest quality worsened considerably, mainly in the regions of intensive logging, when the most productive standing trees of valuable coniferous species were felled.

Bibliography
Morozov G.F. 1970-1971. Selected Works. Vol.1, 1971, 30 pp. Vol.2, 1971, 30 pp. Lesnaya Promyshlennost', Moscow. [In Russian]

Forests of Russia. Encyclopedia. 1995. Under the general editorship of A.I. Utkin, G.V. Lindenman, V.I. Nekrasov, and A.V. Simolin. Bol'shaya Rossiayskaya Ensyklopediya. Moscow, 446 pp. [In Russian]

Sukachiev V.N. 1964. Forest Biocenology. AN SSSR, Moscow, 471 pp. [In Russian]

FAO. 1999. State of the World Forests. Rome, 154 pp. [In Russian]

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State Forest Account
Valentin Strahov

The State Forest Account (SFA) arises from a yearly updating of inventory data from forest management units (FMU) obtained during the ordinary inventory and planning operation cycle. It is based on yearly records of current changes in the forest state of FMUs, further generalized at the level of regions (members of the Russian Federation) and for Russia as a whole. The SFA was performed every five years on 1 January; it has taken place in 1966, 1973, 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, and 1998. Since 1999, the SFA has been carried out each year. It is a source of the official data on Russian forests at different levels of aggregation and actually replaces Russia’s national forest inventory.

For forests where inventory and planning operations were not carried out, the account is being made by updating materials of air-borne evaluation and deciphering of space-borne imagery. Thse tasks are done mainly by regional forest inventory and planning enterprises (FIPE). In 2000, the number of FIPEs was 13. Only four of them are situated in the Asian part of Russia, the other nine are in the European-Urals part (EUPR).

In the 20th century the Forest Fund of Russia was investigated in detail and 60% of its total area was managed (that is, its inventory and planning were completed). The area that remains is being investigated using different methods, including aero-visual survey for the years of the 1950s and 1960s and deciphering of airborne or space imagery. The Forest Fund lands studied with these simplified methods are, as a rule, far from roads, and access to them is difficult.

Each forest management unit (FMU or leskhoz) in Russia is traditionally subdivided into forest districts (lesnichestvo). To determine the spatial layout and situation of the forest blocks, each forest district is subdivided into compartments (kvartal), and each compartment into evaluation strata.

The evaluation strata are basic units for spatial generalization of data at forest inventory. Subdivision into compartments makes forest inventory more feasible, and creates favorable conditions for forest access, orientation, forest protection, etc.

The forest inventory work traditionally includes evaluation of the growing stock as the sum of trunk volume of all the living trees. When evaluating middle-aged, maturing, mature, and over-mature forests, as a rule, one takes into account trees with minimum diameter 6.1 cm (diameter class of 8 cm). The trees of lesser diameter usually constitute the second storey and are described as undergrowth. During forest inventory work, one record incorporates several characteristics, among which the major are: age, height, diameter, site class, increment, density, and layering.

The evaluation of stands carried out during inventory and planning operations, is the main element of ground-based inventory. It constitutes the basis on which characteristics of areas, standing volumes, species and age composition, and other items of description of the Forest Fund are summarized for different management (FMUs) and administrative (Region, Territory, Republic) units of the Russian Federation. The accounting categories of the SFA correspond to those of Forest Fund lands of Russia. At present the Forest Fund includes lands where forests grow or can grow and can be managed for forestry purposes.

Over the last two centuries, the idea of the Forest Fund evolved under the influence of a concept involving the State-stewardship of forests. As a result, the Forest Fund categories to be accounted for are based on both management and landscape elements. The selection of just these elements was favored by a huge amount of empirical experience with forest management, experience that allows workers to forecast the most probable temporal changes in the Forest Fund that arise from management activity or natural impacts on the forest.

The notion of “Forest Fund” reflects the spatial mosaic of vegetation, waters, roads, fields, pastures, settlements, etc. historically formed in Russia as a result of human activity and natural processes in the forest zone.

In accordance with the Forest Code of the Russian Federation, in force since February 1997, all forests – excluding those on defense lands (Ministry of Defense of Russia) and lands of settlements, as well as land not covered with forest vegetation – constitute the Forest Fund (Article 7 of the Forest Code). Those lands administered by the Ministry of Defense and the Settlements' Administration are outside its purview.

The Forest Fund lands are subdivided into forest and non-forest lands (Article 8 of the Forest Code). The forestlands are those covered with forest, and also those not covered, but intended for forest restoration (cutovers, burned forests, perished forest stands, open stands, wastelands, glades, forest nurseries, forest cultures with non closed canopy, etc.). The non-forest lands include those intended for forestry purposes (rides, roads, agricultural lands, etc.), as well as other areas within the Forest Fund boundaries (swamps, stone fields, and other lands unsuitable for use).

Aggregation of account categories within boundaries of administrative, geographic and management areas provides for carrying out national short- and long-term projects of natural (including forest) resources utilization in the Russian forest zone, and to do it on a unified topical basis. An outline of the accounting categories is provided in Table 1.

Table 1. Composition of accounting categories of the State Forest Fund of the Russian Federation.

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1. Administrative and geographic accounting categories
1.1. Forest management units (FMUs – leskhozes)
1.2. Members of the Russian Federation (republics, territories, regions, autonomous districts)
1.3. Economic areas (Baltic, Northwest, Northern, Volga-Vyatka, Central, Central Chernozem, Povolzhye, North Caucasus, Urals, West Siberian, East Siberian, Far East)
1.4. Federal districts (Northwest, Central, Povolzhye, Southern, Urals, Siberian, Far East)
1.5. European part of Russia
1.6. Asian part of Russia
1.7. Russian Federation
2. Accounting categories for areas
2.1. Area of forest lands, including
2.1.1. Area of forest lands, total
2.1.2. Area of forest lands covered with forest vegetation, with separate figures for the sum of areas of Group I, II, and III forests^a and the sum of areas of Group I, II, and III forests accessible for exploitation, including:
2.1.2.1. Area of forest lands non-covered with forest vegetation
2.1.2.2. Area of forest cultures
2.1.2.3. Areas of groups of major forest-forming tree species.
2.1.2.3.1 Areas of forests with dominating conifer species, including by age groups
2.1.2.3.1.1 Young stands
2.1.2.3.1.2 Middle-aged
2.1.2.3.1.3 Maturing
2.1.2.3.1.4 Mature and over mature
2.1.2.3.2 Areas of forests with dominating hard-wood species, including by age groups
2.1.2.3.2.1 Young stands
2.1.2.3.2.2 Middle-aged
2.1.2.3.2.3 Maturing
2.1.2.3.2.4 Mature and over mature
2.1.2.3.3 Areas of forests with dominating soft-wood species, including by age groups
2.1.2.3.3.1 Young stands
2.1.2.3.3.2 Middle-aged
2.1.2.3.3.3 Maturing
2.1.2.3.3.4 Mature and over mature
2.1.2.4. Area of each major forest-forming tree species
2.1.2.4.1. Pine
2.1.2.4.2. Spruce
2.1.2.4.3. Larch
2.1.2.4.4. Siberian Pine
2.1.2.4.5. Fir
2.1.2.4.6. Oak of origin from seeds
2.1.2.4.7. Oak coppice
2.1.2.4.8. Beech
2.1.2.4.9. Maple
2.1.2.4.10. Ash
2.1.2.4.11. Stone Birch
2.1.2.4.12. Lime
2.1.2.4.13. Birch
2.1.2.4.14. Aspen
2.1.2.4.15. Alder
2.1.2.4.16. Other forest-forming species (Dwarf Siberian Pine and Dwarf Aspen)
2.1.3. Area of forest lands non-covered with forest vegetation, with separate figures for the sum of areas of I, II and III groups’ forests^a and the sum of areas of I, II and III groups’ forests accessible for exploitation, including
2.1.3.1. Area of non-closed forest cultures
2.1.3.2. Area of forest nurseries and plantations
2.1.3.3. Area of natural open stands
2.1.3.4. Area of scarce woodland
2.1.3.5. Area of burnt-out stands
2.1.3.6. Area of perished tree stands
2.1.3.7. Area of cutovers
2.1.3.8. Area of glades, wastelands
2.2. Area of non-forest lands
2.2.1. Arable lands
2.2.2. Hayfields
2.2.3. Pastures
2.2.4. Gardens, vineyards, fruit, and nuts plantations
2.2.5. Swamps
2.2.6. Sands
2.2.7. Waters
2.2.8. Roads
2.2.9. Farmsteads
2.2.10. Ices, barren grounds, stone fields
2.2.11. Other lands (linear structures, rocks, treeless steep slopes, etc.)
3. Accounting categories for volumes
3.1. Total growing stock of major forest-forming tree species on forest lands covered with forest vegetation, with separate figures for the sum of growing stock of I, II and III groups’ forests^a and the sum of growing stock of I, II and III groups’ forests accessible for exploitation, including
3.1.1. Growing stock by groups of major forest-forming tree species, including
3.1.1.1. Growing stock in forests with dominating conifer species, including by age groups
3.1.1.1.1. Young
3.1.1.1.2. Middle-aged
3.1.1.1.3. Maturing
3.1.1.1.4. Mature and over mature
3.1.1.2. Growing stock in forests with dominating hard-wood species, including by age groups
3.1.1.2.1. Young
3.1.1.2.2. Middle-aged
3.1.1.2.3. Maturing
3.1.1.2.4. Mature and over mature
3.1.1.3. Growing stock in forests with dominating soft-wood species, including by age groups
3.1.1.3.1. Young
3.1.1.3.2. Middle-aged
3.1.1.3.3. Maturing
3.1.1.4.4. Mature and over mature
3.1.2. Growing stock of each major forest-forming tree species
3.1.2.1. Pine
3.1.2.2. Spruce
3.1.2.3. Larch
3.1.2.4. Siberian Pine
3.1.2.5. Fir
3.1.2.6. Oak of origin from seeds
3.1.2.7. Oak coppice
3.1.2.8. Beech
3.1.2.9. Maple
3.1.2.10. Ash
3.1.2.11. Stone Birch
3.1.2.12. Lime
3.1.2.13. Birch
3.1.2.14. Aspen
3.1.2.15. Alder
3.1.2.16. Other forest-forming species (Dwarf Siberian Pine and Dwarf Aspen)
3.2. Total average increment of the growing stock by groups of major forest forming tree species with separate figures for the sum of growing stock of I, II and III groups’ forests^a and the sum of growing stock of I, II and III groups’ forests accessible for exploitation, including
3.2.1. Total average increment of the growing stock in forests with dominating conifer species, including by age groups
3.2.1.1. Young
3.2.1.2. Middle-aged
3.2.1.3. Maturing
3.2.1.4. Mature and over mature
3.2.2. Total average increment of the growing stock in forests with dominating hard-wood species, including by age groups
3.2.2.1. Young
3.2.2.2. Middle-aged
3.2.2.3. Maturing
3.2.2.4. Mature and over mature
3.2.3. Total average increment of the growing stock in forests with dominating soft-wood species, including by age groups
3.2.3.1. Young
3.2.3.2. Middle-aged
3.2.3.3. Maturing
3.2.3.4. Mature and over mature

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^aGroup I consists of protective forests that mainly fulfill environmental and social functions with very strong limitations on the industrial harvest;

Group II consists of mainly protective forests with restricted industrial use;

Group III consists of forests with several functions but whose principal function is production of industrial wood.

The Forest Fund makes up nearly 69% of the total lands of Russia (inner waters included), and 78.5% of closed canopy forests are in the Asian part of the country, while only 21.5% are in the European-Urals part. The closed canopy forests make 45% of the cover rate of Russia as a whole, and 39% of the European-Urals part.

The total area of the Forest Fund by 1 January 1998, was 1,179 billion ha, or 69.3% of suitable lands.

Bibliography

Giriaev M.D., Yu.A. Kukuev, V.V. Sdobnova, F.A. Diakun, V.V. Strakhov, and A.N. Filipchuk. 1997. Guidelines on the Procedure of State Forest Accounting of the Forest Fund. Federal Forest Service, All-Russia Research and Information Center, Moscow, 80 pp.

Strakhov V.V., F.A. Diakun, V.V. Sdobnova, N.K. Daniliv, S.V. Daniliva, G.V. Kurdina, T.F. Beliakova, and G.P. Poliakova. 1999. Forest Fund of Russia (based on data of the State Forest Account from 1 January 1998). Reference book, All-Russia Research and Information Center, Moscow, 649 pp.

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Dynamics of Russian Forests in 1961 - 1998
Anatoli Shvidenko

The State Forest Account (SFA) sets out a specific procedure for collecting and updating data on the status and distribution of forests at the national level. The first complete inventory of all Russian forests was finished in 1957, and the first SFA that included this information is dated 1961. Before 1998, the FSA was provided, as a rule, each 5 years. Three major methods of forest inventory were used in Russia during this period: (1) on-ground forest inventory and planning (FIP, the Russian term lesoustroistvo), (2) remote sensing based methods, and (3) aerotaxation (aerial inventory method) (Gosleshoz SSSR, 1986; FFSR, 1995b). The share of areas inventoried by the different methods changed during this period. By 1998 the forest fund area inventoried by the FIP was 61%; about 24% were inventoried by remote sensing methods and 15% were inventoried by aerotaxation (mainly in remote unmanaged forests situated in forest tundra and sparse taiga zones). Accuracy of the SFA data by a definite year depends upon areas inventoried by the different methods and accuracy of these methods. It has been shown that precision of aggregated areas by major forest land cover categories is in the range ±0.1-0.2% and the systematic error of the total growing stock of Russian forests during the last 30 years were within the limits ±3% (Shvidenko and Nilsson, 2001).

Table 1 contains data extracted from (SNKh SSSR, 1962; Goslehoz SSSR, 1966, 1976, 1982, 1986; Goscomles SSSR, 1990, 1991; FFSR, 1995b, 1999). During 1961-1998 major definitions (forest fund, forest land, forested areas, etc.) have not been changed (some minor changes are indicated in the footnote to Table 1). This fact makes it possible to analyze consistently the dynamics of Russian forests for the entire time period. Table 1 shows, during 1961-1998, forested areas (closed forests) in Russia increased by 78.8 x 10^6 hectares (ha), and unforested areas decreased by 44.9 x 10^6 ha. The difference between these two values is explained by natural reforestation on non-forest lands, more accurate assessments of areas during the last decades, and forest fire suppression. The growing stock on forested areas during the period considered increased by 4.33 x 10^9 cubic meters (m^3).

Tables 2 and 3 contain dynamics of areas and growing stock of forests dominated by major forest forming species (MFFS) under state management. The MFFS are organized into three categories: coniferous, hard wood, and soft wood deciduous. Table 4 indicates dynamics of average growing stock of the MFFS by the economic regions of the Russian Federation. The change of average growing stock in the Asian part of Russia in 1961-1978 is explained, to a significant extent, by overestimating of growing stock volume by aerotaxation in 1948-1956, and due to gradual substitution of these areas by more precise forest inventory methods.

References

FFSR. 1995a. Manual on Forest Inventory and Planning in Forest Fund of Russia. Part 1, 175 pp. Part II, 112 pp. Federal Forest Service of Russia, Moscow. [In Russian]

FFSR. 1995b. Forest Fund of Russia (state by 1 January 1993). Federal Forest Service of Russia, Moscow, 280 pp. [In Russian]

FFSR. 1999. Forest Fund of Russia (state by 1 January 1998). Federal Forest Service of Russia, Moscow, 650 pp. [In Russian]

Goscomles SSSR. 1990. 1991. Forest Fund of the USSR (state by 1 January 1988). Vol.1, 1021 pp., Vol.2, 989 pp. The USSR State Committee on Forest, Moscow. [In Russian]

Gosleshoz SSSR. Forest Fund of the USSR, 1966 (state by 1 January 1966, 744 pp.); 1976 (state by 1 January 1973, Vol.1, 600 pp., Vol.2, 561 pp., Vol.3, 800 pp.); 1982 (state by 1 January 1978, Vol.1, 601 pp., Vol.2, 973 pp.); 1986 (state by 1 January 1983, Vol.1, 891 pp., Vol.2, 973 pp.). The USSR State Committee of Forest Management, Moscow. [In Russian]

Shvidenko A. and S. Nilsson. 2001. Dynamics of Russian forests and the carbon budget in 1961-1998: An assessment based on long-term forest inventory data (in press, Climatic Change).

SNKh SSSR. 1962. Forest Fund of the USSR (state by January 1961). Council of National Economy of the USSR, Moscow, 265 pp. [In Russian]

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Phytomass of Russian forests
Anatoli Shvidenko

Russian forests contain about 32.9 Pg C, and account for 82% of terrestrial vegetation phytomass in the country. The amount and dynamics of phytomass are two of the most important indicators of biological productivity of forests and are included in all existing lists of criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management. The long period over which wood accumulates carbon defines a particular role of forests in evaluating the impacts of terrestrial biota on the global carbon budget. The data in this section, received by IIASA Forestry Study (Nilsson et al., 2000), is destined for use in different ecological applications, resource estimations and forest inventory and planning practices.

Tables 5 and 6 contain characteristics of the regression equations of forest phytomass fractions (mass of stem wood over bark, bark, crown wood over bark, foliage, roots). The regression equations can be applied to aggregated data of forest inventory, e.g., of the State Forest Account from the district to national levels. The models have been developed on the basis of 2,124 sample plots from 300 regional studies. The analytical forms of the equations used are:

where A is age of forests (10 = A =220 for deciduous species, and 10 = A = 350 for coniferous); B is class of bonitet (site index), codes 3, 4, …, 11, 12 were used for bonitet classes Ic, Ia, …, Va, Vb); P is relative stocking (0.3 = P = 1.0); and ?i are the regression coefficients. Equation (1) was used for all other species and regions, exclusive of beech forests, for which equation (2) was used. All equations are adequate by the variables used, and are statistically significant at < 0.1 level.

Tables 7 and 8 present the aggregated estimates of phytomass for all Russian forests by zones and dominant species. The total amount of phytomass on forested area (closed forests) is defined as 32,862 Tg C, of which 75.1% can be attributed to coniferous forests (pine 16.7%, spruce 14.3%, fir 2.5%, larch 33.6, and cedar 8.0%), 3.5% to hard wood deciduous, and 18.7% to soft wood deciduous forests (mostly birch, 13.6% and aspen 3.6%). Shrubs (in territories where "high" forests cannot grow due to severe climatic conditions, shrubs are inventoried as forested area) account for 2.6%, and a negligible part of phytomass (0.1%) in stands of other species. About three-quarters of phytomass (78.0%) is above ground, and 22.0% of phytomass is located below ground (of which 17.7% are tree roots). Green parts account for 6.2 % (of which 3.5% are foliage). Of 71.8% of above-ground wood, 60.8% is concentrated in stems (over bark). Uncertainty of the estimate of total phytomass of Russian forests is ±4% (confidential probability 0.9). Table 9 shows the density of the phytomass in Russian forests by bioclimatic zones and by aggregated fractions of phytomass.

Tables 10, 11, and 12 show distribution of phytomass by dominant species and age groups separately for the European-Ural and Asian parts of Russia, and for all of Russia.

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Current Increment and Mortality in Russian Forests
Anatoli Shvidenko

The indicators of current increment - gross and net growth - are crucially important to estimating the contemporary productivity of Russian forests. Russian forest inventory does not identify the current increment in each inventoried stand of Russian forests. For this reason, no official estimates of these indicators have been published.

Two indicators of current increment are of basic interest: (annual) gross and (annual) net growth. Gross growth is defined as an amount of stem wood (over bark) produced by a stand for a definite year, i.e., dTV = TVA - TVA-1, where TVA and TVA-1 - are total productivity of a stand by the end of years A and A-1 respectively. Net growth is the change in growing stock volume during a calendar year, dGS = GSA - GSA-1. If functions of TV and GS by age are known, these two indicators are presented as derivatives of dTV = TV'(A) and dGS = GS'(A). The difference between these two indicators represents mortality dM = dTV - dGS. Mortality has a complicated nature, and could include natural death (of mature trees), pathological death (impact of different pathogens, e.g., diseases, insects, or air pollution), and mechanical death (wind break, thinning, etc.). A biological sense of gross and net growth is evident: dTV presents a woody part (by stem wood) of Net Primary Production (NPP) and dGS, an analogical part of Net Ecosystem Production (NEP) of forest ecosystems.

This section contains aggregated estimates of gross and net growth of all Russian forests, which were calculated based on a modeling system of dynamics and growth of Northern Eurasia forests developed by IIASA's Forestry Project (Shvidenko et al., 1995; Shvidenko et al., 1997). The system presents a unified set of about 1,200 dynamic rows of growth of major forest forming species modeled by Richards-Chapman growth function. The system accumulated all available reference and normative data on dynamics of forests in Northern Eurasia, including 110 selected general and regional yield tables.

Tables 13, 14, and 15 contain, respectively, annual net growth, mortality, and gross growth of all Russian forested areas, by dominant species and groups of age, for European and Asian parts and Russia totally, corresponding to the State Forest Account data of 1993. Table 16 presents the aggregated data of dGS, dM, and dTV.

The total net growth of main forest forming species of Russia is estimated to be at 965 x 10^6 m^3 yr-1, mortality 908 x 10^6 m^3 yr-1, and gross growth 1873 x 10^6 m^3 yr-1. In addition, shrub areas (accounted as forested area in regions where "high" forests are not able to grow due to severe climatic conditions) provide dGS, dM and dTV of 0.9, 5.3 and 6.2 x 10^6 m^3 yr-1, respectively. It means that net growth, mortality and gross growth of all Russian forested areas (closed forests) are, respectively, 966 x 10^6 m^3 yr-1, 913 x 10^6 m^3 yr-1, and 1880 x 10^6 m^3 yr-1, or overall averages are 1.265, 1.196 and 2.462 m^3 yr-1 ha-1. High mortality in Russian forests is defined by big territories of mature and overmature stands; by a significant share of different categories of uneven-aged forests; and by impacts of natural and human-induced disturbances.

References

Nilsson, S., A. Shvidenko, V. Stolbovoi, M. Gluck, M. Jonas, and M. Obersteiner. 2000. Full Carbon Account for Russia. IR-00-021, IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria, 180 pp.

Shvidenko A., S. Venevsky, G. Raile, and S. Nilsson. 1995. A system for evaluation of growth and mortality in Russian forests. Water, Air and Soil Pollutio, 82:333-348.

Shvidenko A., S. Venevsky, and S. Nilsson. 1997. Generalized estimation of increment and mortality in Russian forests. In: Sustainable Development of Boreal Forests, Proceedings of the 7th Annual Conference of the IBFRA, 23 August 1996, St.Petersburg, IBFRA and Federal Forest Service of Russia, Moscow, Vol. 99, pp. 184-191.

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Natural Hazards - Insects
Nikolai Lyamzev and Alexander Isaev

Insects are an important component of forest ecosystems. Many of them disturb various organs and tissues of wood species and bushes (needles, leaves, buds, flowers, fruits, barks, wood and roots). Environmental and economic importance of various species of forest insects varies greatly. It depends on their ecology (terms, duration and recurrence interval), species composition of forest stands and resistance of forest stands against pests. Pests that demonstrate the eruptions of mass reproduction under favorable conditions and inflict a considerable damage on forestry are especially hazardous. These are sawfly insects such as Dendrolimus sibiricus Tschetw, Dendrolimus pini L., Bupalus piniarius L., Panolis flammea Schiff, Diprion pini L., Neodiprion sertifeer Geoffr., Lymantria dispar L., Tortrix viridana L., Euproctis chysorrhoea L.

Forest disturbances caused by the pests can result to disintegration of the forest stands because of loss of the chief species (maximum hazard), change of forest structure due to clump shrinking and thinning of the first forest layer, chronicle reduction productivity of the forest stands because of considerable decrease of annual growth and fructification, and temporal reduction of productivity. Coniferous trees respond to complete or partly defoliation greater than the deciduous trees do that. They decrease sharply their annual growth and start to dry out under intensive cropping and to be colonized by the trunk pests.

Most dimensioned and destructive eruptions of pest reproduction occur in Siberia and the Far East, where they cover hundreds of thousands hectares. In European Russia, permanent eruptions of mass reproduction of the sawfly insects and maximum hazard are observed in the forest-steppe sub-zone and in the southern part of the coniferous-broad-leaved forests. Hazard of pests in the specific forest stands could be inferred by the relative lifetime of the focal points of the mass reproduction. This indicator is calculated as a ration between the years, when actual focal points of pests were observed and all observation period. It characterizes the probability to reveal the focal points of pests (Table ). The indicator is used for compiling the maps of focal points of pests. Data of Forest Agency of Russia round the all regions over 1977-2000 have been used to assess hazard of pests.

References

Control, registration and forecast of mass reproduction of sawfly insects. M.: Lesnaya Promyshlennost’, 1995. 525, [in Russian)].

Epova, V.I, A.S.Pleshanov. Zones of hazard of phyllophagous insect in Asian Russia. Novosibirsk: Nauka. 1995. 47, [in Russian)].

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Insect Database Descriptions
Nikolai Lyamzev and Alexander Isaev

Dendrolimus sibiricus Tschetw. Major tree species disturbed by this pest are fir, Siberian and Korean cedars, various species of the larch. Primary focal points of the pest are usually formed in well heated (heat reserve is above 1600^oC) medium-dense mature forest stands that grow in dry environmental conditions or at the forest edges.

There are short-term, standard and long-term eruptions of Dendrolimus sibiricus Tschetw. Short-term eruptions are typical in dark-coniferous forests in the southern taiga. Length of gradation cycle is on average 10 years and length of eruptive phase does nor exceed 3 years. Length of gradation cycle increases up to 15 years and eruptive phase – up to 4-5 years in dark-coniferous forests in the mountain taiga. In the larch forests, gradations of Dendrolimus sibiricus Tschetw are often long-term.

Hazard of Dendrolimus sibiricus Tschetw is extremely great. Especially great damage it inflicts on fir and cedar forests, which start to be colonized by trunk pests during a second year after defoliation.

Dendrolimus pini L. It is spread within the area of Scotch pine. In Asian Russia, it occurs in the southern regions of Western and Middle Siberia up to the Baikal Region. Primary focal points of the pest occur in the middle-aged and elder forest stands. The greatest eruptiveness of the species is observed in rather worm (heat reserve should be above 2000^oC) and dry (dryness index should be above 2.0) regions.

Eruptions of mass reproduction of the pest is observed after several dry years and can last seven-eight years. Great duration of an eruptive phase of gradations results to extremely high hazard of this species. Twice- or thrice-repeated disturbance of the pine causes clump drying out. Under the longer destructive effect, continuos drying out of standing trees is observed.

Limantria monacha L. It is of widespread occurrence from the western boundaries to the Pacific Ocean. In Asian Russia, the pest occurs in the southern regions, where heat reserve is above 1800^oC. In European Russia, the species prefers spruce and pine, in Western Siberia and Far East – various species of larch, fir, spruce and Korean cedar. Primary focal points of the pest develop in the high-density spruce forests and pine forests of various ages with Hylocomium, Dicranum, Rhytidiadelphus species, where heat reserve is about 2000^oC. When heat reserve is less than 2000^oC, mass reproduction will be short-term. In pine forests, single and strong defoliation that results to decrease of annual growth and drying out of the undergrowth is usually observed.

Gradation cycle takes 7-8 years and its eruptive phase – 2 years. Continuous defoliation of forest stand usually does not occur.

Bupalus piniarius L. It is one of the most widespread pests of the pine forests. It prefers pine forests of forest-steppe, sub-taiga and southern taiga zones, where heat reserve is above 2000^oC and moistening is insufficient (dryness index is 1.5-2.0). Focal points of the pest develop in high-density average-aged mature and overmature forest stands. When dry summer follows after a year, when disturbance took place, the die-back of the trees of the lowest level of thickness occur. Gradation of this pest lasts 7-8 years.

Panolis flammea Schiff. It occurs universally from the western boundaries to the Pacific Ocean. In the southern regions of Siberia and Far East, northern boundary of its area coincides with the isotherm of 1600^oC. The pest prefers Scotch pine and Siberian and Korean cedars. Primary focal points of the pest develop in the high-density pine forests especially of man-induced origin. Under twice-repeated defoliation of the forest stands, when 30-40% of the needles are consumed at a first year and 80-100% - at a second one, disintegration of the forest stands takes place and open forests are formed. Gradation period is usually seven years. Eruptive phase takes two years.

Diprion pini L. It is common in the pine forests of European Russia and Siberia. Focal points of the pest develop at the edges of the pine forests of thin-pole age. Under double generation, gradation lasts 3,5 years or seven generations. Eruption of mass reproduction can be long-term or be completely interrupted because of diapause.

Neodiprion sertifer Geoffr. It occurs within the pine area in European Russia and Siberia up to Lake Baykal. Focal points of the pests arise both in man-induced and natural forest stands of various ages, densities and types. Generation is anniversary. Partly diapause lasts up to three years. Gradation lasts 4-7 years. Clump shrinkage of the trees is possible in the focal points of the pest.

Lymantria dispar L. Its area is vast. It is notable for wide polyphagia and high ecological plasticity. In European Russia, the pest occurs within oak area, in Asian Russia – in plain and low-mountain forests in forest-steppe and sub-taiga sub-zones. Preferable tree species are birch, aspen, poplar and larch in Western Siberia, larch and birch in Middle Siberia and Cisbaykalia and Transbaykalia, larch, birch, poplar and oak in Amur Region and Maritime Territory. It is heat-loving and xerophilous species. Primary focal points of the pest are formed in old thinned forest stands, open forests and forest shelter belts.

Gradations depend both on population specific features and specificity of habitats. In European Russia and Western Siberia, gradation lasts 7-8 years with 11-year intervals. In the Far East, it lasts 3-5 years with 6-8-year intervals.

Usually, under once- or twice-repeated defoliation, deciduous trees and the larch restore anabolic apparatus, however losses of annual growth (by 32-64%) are observed.

Tortrix viridana L. It is common within the oak area in European Russia. The greatest and longest eruptions of its mass reproduction occur in the south and south-east of the area. Primary focal points of the pest are formed in vast oak forest in the forest-steppe zone, in overmature and mature forest stands in the mixed forest zone, in gorge oak forests, forest shelter belts, forest islands and small oak forests in the steppe zone. Gradation lasts 8 years and eruptive phase – 2 years. Under dry conditions, eruptions of mass reproduction are long-term and results to significant decrease of annual growth and clump shrinkage of oak forests.

Euproctis chysorrhoea L. It is widespread in the forest-steppe and in the south of Euripean Russia. Its eastern limit coincides with that of the oak area at the Ural Flood Plain. Primary focal points of the pest are formed in the driest and most heated oak forests, especially in the oak young growth stands and in forest shelter belts and in steppe and gorge island oak forests. Gradation lasts 7-8 years. Eruptions of mass reproduction are especially great and long-term in the south-east of European Russia.

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