Land Resources of Russia

Wetlands are wet (bordering on water saturation) areas intermediate between land and water (Considine and Considine, 1994). They are the ecosystems that include sea surface, lakes, rivers, coastal vegetation, bogs, and alluvial and delta complexes. Wetlands play an important part in landscape stabilization, natural environmental cleaning, the traditional land use of small groups of people, and biodiversity conservation. The wetlands of Russia have a large complex of ecosystems. Three general groups of wetlands are recognized, organized by their ecosystem types and location in the landscape: marine, inland, and anthropogenic (ponds, canals, irrigation lands, meadows).

The coasts of seas, bays, estuaries and river deltas belong to marine wetlands. The large and important marine wetlands are presented by Kandalaksha Bay, on whose islands more than half of the eider duck population is nested, and islands of Onega Bay (White Sea). The most valuable wetland, for different reasons, is the Volga delta, composed of a dense, small net of rivers with a great number of islands. This unique ecosystem is a habitat for waterfowl and is the world's center of sturgeon diversity and abundance. It also plays a role in the conservation of biodiversity.

The inland wetlands can be organized into river valleys and watersheds. The river valleys are represented by a complex of flood plain communities (alluvial meadows, alluvial forests, shrublands, bogs). There are 120,000 rivers on Russian territory and several of them have great storage lakes. The interfluves of the Pur and Mokkorito Rivers (southwest of Taimyr Peninsula) are an example; in this territory occur various tundra associations (moss/cotton grass, moss/dwarf shrub, etc.), as well as polygonal bogs and flood plain communities. At this site summers the main part of the Taimyr population of wild north reindeer.

The watershed wetlands involve lakes, lake groups, and various bogs. In Russia there are about 2 million lakes with cover of 370,000 square kilometers (km2). The large lake systems are found in the northwest of European Russia (Pskovsko-Chudskaya lake lowland), in West Siberia (lakes of Tobolo-Ishimskaya forest-steppe, lake system Chanovskaya in Baraba Lowland). This wetland type is characterized by a combination of lakes, bogs, forests, and meadow communities.

The group of peatlands is most various. Peatlands occupy 161 million hectares (ha) in Russia; they have different distribution patterns: in several regions, the peat formations make up 80% of the territory (West Siberia). In Karelia, peat bogs account for 30% of the land, while in central areas the number of bogs is not high. In European Russia, bogs cover 38 million ha; in West Siberia, 75 million ha; and in the Far East (Kamchatka and Sakhalin), 27 million ha.

Sphagnum bogs are distributed throughout all the territory of Russia that is in touch with the large area of the genus Sphagum, but they often are found in the taiga zone. There are two main groups of sphagnum bogs: raised and transitional bogs. The development of raised bogs is caused by precipitation, which is why their distribution depends strongly on the climate. One of the biggest raised systems is the bog Usinskoe, situated in the north-east of European Russia (Republic of Komi). More than 860 shallow lakes are located here, wooded hummock-ridge complexes predominate.

Transitional bogs are characterized by little variation in communities, because their development to a great extent is affected by groundwaters and is less climate dependent. The large massifs of these bogs are situated in the middle and southern taiga (south of Karelia, Arkhangel'skaya, and Vologodskaya districts); they often are located on large lowlands (e.g., the Meshcherskaya Lowland). Most peat extraction is connected with this bog type, especially in the south part of their area (southern taiga, broad-leaved/coniferous forests). Predominant peat fields are situated in the Vladimirskaya, Nizhegorodskaya, Leningradskaya, Moskovskaya, and Ekaterinburgskaya districts of European Russia). Many bogs are drained. They play a key part in recreation and water conservation.

Herb/lichen/moss bogs are distributed in the north of European Russia and Siberia. The peculiarity and the distribution of this bog group owe to permafrost. A well-defined microrelief caused by permafrost processes is typical. Peat formation stopped and lichens predominate on the higher sites, while sphagum and hypnum mosses prevail in bog hollows, where peat is being actively formed. Herb/lichen/moss bogs vary with the kind of relief: polygonal bogs occur in the northern tundra, flat frost mound bogs in the southern tundra, and big frost mound bogs in the forest-tundra.

Herb/sphagnum/hypnum bogs (aapa bogs) are found in the south of Kola Peninsula and Karelia (southern tundra and north of taiga zone). Their distinguishing features are the variety of communities, the relative richness of mineral nutrient elements, and the presence of herb hollows without moss cover.

Herb and herb/hypnum bogs (fens) are widespread in European Russia. They are located on flood plains, sea lagoons, coasts of lakes, ravines, small depressions in the southern part of the forest zone, forest-steppe, and steppe zones. These peatlands are rich in mineral elements and have the most various vegetation communities. Many peatlands are drained and used as pastures and haylands.

Many bogs are composed of different type communities. In the central part of West Siberia (interfluves of Ob' River and Irtysh River) the world's largest peatland of Vasyuganskoye is situated, which is a giant bog system that covers 5 million ha. The Vasyuganskoye bog system makes up various bog and peated forest ecosystems (raised bogs of different developmental stages, transitional bogs, swampy fens). The wetter conditions of Barabinskaya forest-steppe, which is located south of Vasyuganskoye, are due to the flow from this bog system.

Their distribution of forested peatlands is related to the forest zone. They are concentrated mainly in the southern part of the forest zone. Massifs of these bogs are not large. Various communities are formed, in relation to degree of flowing waters and mineral content of groundwaters, which differ by their structure and composition: mesoeutrophic fens with spruce, birch (with Menyanthes trifoliata, Calla palustris, Comarum palustre, Carex caespitosa, Sphagnum squaarosum, S. girgensohnii), eutrophic fens with black alder (Cicuta virosa, Iris pseudacorus, Carex elongata).

A major international mechanism for wetland protection is the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention). In 1975, the USSR signed this Convention. After the USSR collapsed, only three wetlands under the purview of the Ramsar Convention remained on the Russian territory. In 1994, a special Russian Federation Government Edict confirmed the international status of the three areas and assigned it to another 32 areas. The total of Russian wetlands of international importance has now reached 35, covering a territory of 10.7 million km2.

A broad spectrum of wetland ecosystems is protected. A characteristic feature of Russian wetlands of international importance is a large amount of natural flatland and estuarial complexes as well as huge massifs of peat-bogs. Up to 35 million waterfowl are annually concentrated on the 35 wetlands of international importance (see Table 1) during autumn migrations. (This is 12% of the Russian population.)

In 1994-1999, the State Committee for Environment Protection, in cooperation with Russian Federation subjects and assisted by the international organizations Wetlands International and the Ramsar Convention Secretariat, generated the legal protection mechanism and informational base on the status of wetlands. The effort to generalize preliminary information on the status of protected ecosystems and determining factors has been accomplished for all 35 wetlands. Regulations on conserving 12 Ramsar territories have been developed to control human activities, and 26 territories have been outlined and mapped (see Table 1).

Efforts to protect the 35 Ramsar wetlands are only the first steps in solving this problem. Looking at the worldwide situation, it would be necessary to generate a protective network for highly valuable wetlands that encompassed no less than 400 locations. Currently, a specific list of 77 wetlands is already available. A Ramsar-territory status should be given to wetlands of international, national, and regional importance. This long-term effort needs a specific program to be developed for the whole country.

References

Considine, D.M. and G.D. Considine (Eds.) 1994. Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia, 8th edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.

Table 1. Wetlands of Russia protected by the Ramsar Convention.

Name	Approx. area (km²)	Functional significance	Wetlands key species	Number of species listed in the Russian Red Data Book
1. The White Sea Kandalaksha Gulf, including state nature zapovednik “Kandalakshski” (Murmansk oblast)	20.8	Mass nesting, migrations	Swans, wild geese, eiders, sandpipers	24 animals, 7 plants
2. Delta of the Volga, including state biosphere zapovednik “Astrakhanski” (Astrakhan oblast)	8,000.0	Mass nesting and spawning, molting, migrations	Waterfowl and colonial circumaquatic birds (nesting of over 1.5 million birds, migratory flying of 10 – 20 million birds). Sturgeon species	21 animals, 4 plants
3. The Khanka Lake, including state nature zapovednik “Khankaiski” (Primorski krai)	310.0	Nesting, molting, migrations	Water and colonial fowl (nesting of over 25,000 birds and migratory flying of 0.5 – 2.0 million birds)	25 animals, 24 plants
4. The Onega Gulf of the White Sea, including state zakaznik “Kuzova” (Republic of Karelia)	40.0	Mass nesting	Sea colonial birds (auk, silver seagull, eider), nesting of 4,000 birds	5 animals
5. Pskov-Chudskoe Lake lowlands, including state zakaznik “Remdovski” (Pskov oblast)	936.0		Water and circumaquatic fowl (160,000 specimens). Migration of about 4 million per day (sparrow, predatory species, and others)	9 animals
6. System of Kama-Bakaldinskie marshes, including state nature zapovednik “Kerzhenski” (Nizhni Novgorod oblast)	2,265.0	Nesting	Water and circumaquatic fowl (50,000 birds)	4 animals
7. Floodlands of the Oka River and a section of the Pra River floodlands within the national park “Meshcherski”(Ryazan oblast)	1,615.4	Concentrations while migrating, nesting	Wild ducks, sandpipers, seagulls (75.0 – 300.0 of wild geese while spring migrating)	5 animals
8. Veselovskoe water storage pool (Rostov oblast)	3,090.0	Nesting, molting, halt while migrating

9. The Manich-Gudilo Lake (Republic of Kalmikia-Khalmg Tangch and Rostov oblast)	1,126.0	Mass nesting and migrations	Colonial circumaquatic and water fowl (nesting of about 40,000 birds and migratory autumn flying of about 3.5 million birds, including geese and barnacles)	29 animals
10.- 11. Delta of the Kuban River: a group of estuaries between the Kuban and Protoka rivers, and the Arkharo-Grivenskaya system of estuaries in the Eastern Azov area, including state zakaznik “Priazovski” (Krasnodar krai)	1,730.0	Mass nesting, molting, halt while migrating	Waterfowl, sandpipers, colonial circumaquatic birds (after reproduction period, 0.5 million birds; during migration, 2.0 – 3.5 million)	19 animals
12. Islands in the Obskaya Guba (Bay) of the Kara Sea, including state zakaznik “Nizhneobski” (Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Area)	1,280.0	Mass nesting, molting and migration; fattening and spawning	Waterfowl (after reproduction period, 0.7 – 1.5 million birds). Significant fish species	5 animals
13. Nizhnee Dvuobie (The Ob River lowlands), including state zakaznik “Kunovatski” (Khanti-Mansi and Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Areas)	5,400.0	Ranks among the world largest nesting and molting places	Waterfowl (3.0 – 3.5 million birds)	5 animals
14. Verkhnee Dvuobie (the Ob River area), including state zakaznik “Yelizarovski” (Khanti-Mansi Autonomous Area)	4,700.0	Mass nesting and molting, migrations	Waterfowl (nesting of 1.2 – 1.5 million birds; migration, 3.0 million)	5 animals
15. Lakes of the Tobol-Ishim forest steppe, including state zakaznik “Belozerski” (Tyumen oblast)	12,170.0	Mass nesting, molting, migrations	Waterfowl (up to 600,000 birds) and circumaquatic colonial birds (spring migration of 3.0 – 5.0 specimens; autumn migration up to 10 million)	22 animals
16. The Chani Lake system, including state zakaznik “Kirzinski” (Novosibirsk oblast)	3,650.0	Mass nesting and migrations	Waterfowl and circumaquatic birds (about 200,000 birds)	8 animals
17. The lake system of the Bagan River lower part (Novosibirsk oblast)	268.8	Concentrations while nesting, local and far-range migrations	Waterfowl (reproduction of about 50,000 specimens; migration, 90,000)	4 animals

18. Delta of the Selenga River within state zakaznik “Kabanski” (Republic of Buryatia)	121.0	Mass nesting, molting and migrations	Waterfowl (after reproduction period – 320,000 birds, autumn migration - up to 5.0 million)	11 animals
19. The Toreiskie Lakes, including state nature zapovednik “Daurski” (Chita oblast)	1,725.0	Important nesting location, mass migrations	Waterfowl and circumaquatic birds	30 animals
20. The Khingan-Arkharinskaya lowlands within the state zapovednik “Khinganski” and state zakaznik “Ganukan” (Amur oblast)	2,000.0	Nesting super-concentration, halts while migratory flying	Waterfowl	15 animals, 10 plants
21. The Zeya-Bureya Plain within the state zakaznik “Muravievski” (Amur oblast)	326.0	Nesting and migrations	Rare species of waterfowl (up to 15,000 birds)	3 animals, 3 plants
22. The Bolon Lake and estuaries of the Selgon and Simmi Rivers (Khabarovsk krai)	5,380.0	Nesting concentration, molting, migrations	Waterfowl (migration of up to 80 % birds flying across Nizhnee Priamurie (lower part of the Amur area); resting halts of 0.8 – 1.2 million birds)	7 animals, 3 plants
23. The Udyl Lake and estuaries of the Bicha, Bitka and Pilda Rivers (Khabarovsk krai)	576.0	Important habitat in all life periods	Waterfowl, multiple rare bird species ( )	9 animals
24. Estuary of the Svir River, including state nature zapovednik “Nizhne-Svirski” (Leningrad oblast)	605.0	Mass concentrations while migrating	Waterfowl and circumaquatic birds (0.8 million specimens)
25. The Gulf of Finland Southern Coast, Baltic Sea, within the state zakaznik “Lebyazhi” (Leningrad oblast)	64.0	Concentration while migrating and nesting	Waterfowl and circumaquatic birds (up to 125,000 specimens)	5 animals
26. The Kurgalski Peninsula of the Gulf of Finland, Baltic Sea, within the state zakaznik “Kurgalski Poluostrov” (“Kurgalski Peninsula”) (Leningrad oblast)	650.0	Mass nesting and migrations		9 animals, 2 plants
27. The Berezovie Islands of the Gulf of Finland, Baltic Sea, within the state zakaznik “Berezovie Ostrova” (“Birch Islands”) (Leningrad oblast)	120.0	Mass concentrations during spring migration	Waterfowl and circumaquatic birds	8 animals

28. A system of Mshinskie marshes and lower part of the Oredezh River within the Republican state zakaznik “Mshinskoe Boloto” (“Mshinskoe Marshes”) (Leningrad oblast)	751.0	Nesting, molting and migration period concentrations	Waterfowl (simultaneous flying of 50,000 – 60,000 birds)	9 animals
29. Parapolski Dol (Vale) (Koryak Autonomous Area)	12,000.0	Mass nesting, molting and migrations	Waterfowl (nesting of up to 0.5 million birds)	4 animals
30. The Karaginski Island of the Bering Sea (Koryak Autonomous Area)	1,936.0	Nesting and migrations	Waterfowl and sea colonial birds (nesting of up to 50,000 waterfowl specimens, spring migration of up to 250,000)	6 animals
31. The Moroshechnaya River, including state zakaznik “Reka Moroshech-naya”(“Moroshechnaya River”) (Koryak Autonomous Area)	2,190.0	Important place for concentrations in all life periods; spawning	Waterfowl (spring migration of about 5.0 million birds) and sea colonial birds	5 animals
32. The Utkholok Cape, including state zakaznik “Mys Utkholok” (“Utkholok Cape”) (Koryak Autonomous Area)	4,158.0	Important nesting, molting and migration habitat	Waterfowl (the number in the molting period, 5,000 – 10,000 birds)	2 animals
33. The area between the Pura and Mokkoritto Rivers, including state zakaznik “Purinski” (Taimyr Dolgano-Nenets Autonomous Area)	11,250.0	Mass nesting and molting; mass concentration of wild reindeer	Wild geese (up to 200,000 specimens): wild reindeer	3 animals
34. The Brekhovskie Islands in the Yenisei River estuary (Taimyr Dolgano-Nenets Autonomous Area)	14,000.0	Important concentration	Waterfowl; significant fish species and Siberian sturgeon	6 animals
35. Delta of the Gorbita River (Taimyr Dolgano-Nenets Autonomous Area)	750.0	Nesting and molting concentrations	Waterfowl	3 animals

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