GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Arkadi Tishkov

Flora

Vascular plants. About 11,400 species of aboriginal and endemic plants belonging to 1,488 genera and 197 families are currently registered on the Russian Federation territory. This listing makes up approximately 50% of the flora range in the former USSR. Approximate evaluation shows that endemic species constitute ~20%. The Russia Red Data Book (1983) incorporates 440 Angiospermae, 11 Gymnospermae, and 10 fern species. No less than 2,000 species are subjected to one degree of threat or another. Other calculations give a higher number – up to 3,000. About 75% of vascular plants of Russian flora are represented in protected areas (state zapovedniks, national parks). Specific data on the number of species protected in zakazniks is lacking.

Only a few species are considered extinct as a result of human activities (IUCN category Ex-extinct). In fact, their number is likely to be higher since it is much more difficult to register an absolute lack of a plant than to state its availability. Out of 44 Angiospermae species included in the Russian Red Data Book, 36% are being endangered and can be lost at any moment since they are being conserved neither in-situ nor ex-situ.

Among the vascular plants of Russian wild flora, 1,363 species have been identified as having usable properties. Of these species, 1,103 are used in scientific and traditional folk medicine (200 are officially approved for medical practice); 350 are used as foodstuffs. From among the species with obscure practical value, 460 grow in Russia.

Bryophyta. Russian flora contains representatives of all 3 classes of moss-like organisms: Anthocere, Hepatice, and Bryales. The total number of species is 1,370, 1,000 of which are attributed to Bryales. Endemic species make up only 0.1% of the total Russian moss-like species. At the same time, up to 40% of species have very small geographic ranges and 22 species among them are included in the Russian Red Data Book.

Algae. Over 9,000 sea, freshwater, and soil algae species (macro- and microphytes), amounting to about 1/4 of the world’s algae flora, are registered on Russian land and water areas. Due to large geographic ranges, the number of endemic species is not high and deviates from 2–3% in inland basins to 6–10% in sea basins. The highest degree of algae endemism is characteristic of Lake Baikal. No more than 1% of rare, relict, and endangered species are identified, first of all, because these pools of plants have not been thoroughly studied. More than 160 algae species are of economic value and have found wide application in food, medical, and other areas.

Lichen. Russian lichen flora contains about 3,000 species. Lichen species normally have broad geographic ranges and this accounts for a relatively low number of endemic forms – no more than 50 in Russia. Simultaneously, certain pools are distinguished for elevated endemism and a high number of species group with those relict and rare: 27 species are in the Russian Red Data Book.

Fungi. Myxomycetes refer to one of the less studied pools of fungi. On Russian territory, 211 species from 5 orders and 10 families, accounting for about 30% of world microbiota were identified, though another 75–80% of myxomycetes species known to science may be expected to be revealed. A class of Oomycetes is represented by 350 water and land species in Russian flora, this corresponding to more than 50% of their total composition on Russian territory. Russian microbiota total 323 species (on 600 plant species) pertaining to Ustilaginaceae – a key group of agricultural parasites, this making up about one third of their global diversity. Macromycetes, a large and versatile, in biological and systematic aspects, pool of fungi that includes most edible and microrhiza-building forms, has not been studied well so far, and the total number of its species in Russia has not been estimated. The Russian Red Data Book (1988) enumerates 17 species subject to protection. A list including 241 species from the category of the rare and 103 species in need of protection was compiled at the IB, Russian Academy of Sciences.

Fauna

An inventory of Russian fauna has not been completed yet. A relatively comprehensive study was done on vertebrates. Invertebrates, especially insects, have been studied poorly. Modern taxonomic reviews and revisions for major taxonomic groups of insects and fauna have been lacking so far.

Vertebrate animals. The vertebrate fauna of Russia are rather well investigated. They include more than 1,300 species falling into 7 classes, this being responsible for 2.7% of global diversity (Table 1).

Table 1. Diversity, endemism, and status of vertebrate animal species in the Russian Federation.

Fauna of birds, mammals, and Cyclostomata are characteristic of a wide range (7% to 40% of world diversity). The following Russian regions are defined as those with a high degree of species richness: Northern Caucasus, South of Siberia, and South of Far East. These regions are also noted for high fauna endemism, owing to their historical role as refugiums of the Glacial period. Rare and almost extinct species of vertebrate animals in Russia, according to the Russian Red Data Book (1988) amount to 197 (~15%). This testifies to an unfavorable status of fauna. Under the current conditions of transient economy and structural crisis, the risk of losing the most valuable part of vertebrate diversity is growing.

Mammalia are the best-known group of vertebrate animals of Russia. The number of species accounts for about 7% of world diversity. Teriofauna are not distinguished by high endemism and the overall country’s territory does not foster a high level of mammal species diversity. The order Rodentia is the richest in species. The highest species diversity occurs in the Northern Caucasus, southern Siberia, and the southern Far East. About 23% of mammal species are included in the Russian Red Data Book. About 90 mammal species of Russia (33%) are under threat, both on regional (mainly in Central and Western European countries) and on global levels (39 species or 14%). About 61% of Russian mammal species diversity (excluding the whale-like) and about 60% of species recorded in the Russian Red Data Book are encountered on protected areas. Approximately 50 land mammal species are hunted, either commercially or non-professionally.

Aves fauna have been extensively studied in Russia (732 species) and make up 7.6% of this class’s world diversity with an almost absolute absence of endemic species. The largest number (515 species) are nesting birds, including 27 that nest only in Russia. The most numerous are Passeriformes, Charadriiformes and Anseriformes. About 9% of bird species are registered in the Red Data Book of Russia. About 9% of bird species are considered rare on a regional level (mostly representatives of Falconiformes), and 30 species are recorded in the IUCN Red List. Among them, there are species attributed to EN and VU categories (Pelecanus crispus, Ciconia boyciana, Crus leucogeranus, etc.). Among nesting birds, 83% of species are found on zapovedniks’ areas and a similar indicator for rare species is about 60%. Most economically valuable are waterfowl – Anas, Anser, and Galliformes – which are key sport hunting species.

Reptilia fauna of Russia are not plentiful (75 species), since the climate is rather severe on most of the territory. Russian reptiles constitute about 1.2% of global diversity in this class of vertebrates. Endemic species are lacking. The richest species diversity is observed on the South of Far East and in the Northern and Western Caucasus. About 15% of species are in the category of rare and under extinction on a national level, 4% are recorded in the IUCN Red List. Over half of reptilian species are found in zapovedniks, including all tortoise species (Testudines) and about 30% of Squamata registered in the Russian Red Data Book . The second edition of the Red Data Book of Russia will be supplemented with 21 reptilian species. The economic significance of most species is associated with their commercial value on the world market of wild animals. This value presents a tangible threat for tortoise and snake groups alike.

Amphibia fauna of Russia represent as little as 0.6% of global diversity in this class of vertebrates (27 species). There are no endemic species. About 15% of the species are recorded in the Red Data Book of Russia. Three species are under threat in the European region – Triturus vittatus, Bufo calamita, and Pelodytes caucasicus. Almost all amphibian species (96%) are encountered on protected areas. Endemic value of the amphibia is not high. Another 8 amphibian species are in the plan for the second edition of the Red Data Book of Russia.

Pisces fauna of Russia is diverse and still understudied. Many fish species, for example Salmoniformes, Cypriniformes, etc., form multiple varieties, races, and subspecies, including endemic, that differ in ecological and morphological aspects within a wide geographic range. To specify their taxonomic status, further investigations are needed with the application of updated cytogenetic and genetic methods. Fish fauna include 400 freshwater, semi-migrating and migrating species (seawater/freshwater) and no less than 400 species observed in coastal waters.

These species represent about 2% of this class’s global diversity. Freshwater fauna are indicative of a high percentage of endemic species. The Lake Baikal basin ranks first in endemics. The highest species diversity is specific to the above region and the Amur basin. The Red Data Book of Russia lists nine taxons (~4.5% of inland waters fauna), one species of which – Acipenser sturio – is registered in the IUCN Red List (status EN). The evaluation of the environmental status is accomplished on a subspecies level and in the case of Thymallus arcticus baicalensis infrasubspecies brevipinnis even on a lower level. Sakhalin sturgeon and white salmon are also recorded in the International Red List with an EV status. As a whole, almost 8.5% of freshwater, semi-migrating and migrating species are endangered on a regional level. The second edition of the Red Data Book of Russia will be supplemented with 44 fish taxons. The current status of a whole range of species, subspecies, and individual geographic fish shoals is “under threat on a national level” owing to both water environment deterioration (various types of pollution, control over flow of rivers) and extensive commercial use, including poaching. These problems concern all sturgeon species (basic world reserves of this family are concentrated in Russia) and a considerable part of salmons and carps. Commercial fishing occupies one of the most important places in the country’s economics, and sturgeons, most of the salmons, and a number of perches and carps are among the world’s most economically valuable fish.

Invertebrate animals. No official and trustworthy information on invertebrate animal fauna of Russia is available at present. This situation dates back to the years of the former USSR, when the biological resources of Russia were not singled out from those of the whole country. Moreover, pan-USSR indicators for invertebrate animals often had a tentative character. They were increasing constantly, from 96,000 species to 106,000, as the understanding about domestic fauna grew. As a whole, Russian invertebrate fauna have not been investigated comprehensively. Currently, only a rough amount of invertebrate species in the fauna of the Russian Federation can be discussed: 130,000 to 150,000, or about 10% of global diversity. Insects predominate in this group of fauna (97% of all species). A share of their species in the global amount among orders deviates from 4 to 30.

Russian rare and extinct invertebrates are represented in the Russian Red Data Book (1983) by 49 species, or 0.033% of their total number. This might indicate the safety of domestic fauna as a whole. Yet, if we consider these indicators in terms of the data from the List of Animals recommended for the second edition of the Russian Red Data Book, we see a clear tendency for the number of species to increase – to 155 in need of urgent protection. The number of classes has extended from 2 to 9 and the number of types, from 2 to 5.


BIOLOGICAL AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY OF NATURAL ZONES
Arkadi Tishkov

Polar deserts

This biome is characterized by its circumpolar disposition. In Northern Eurasia it is spread over the Arctic Ocean islands and archipelagoes (Northern Island of Novaya Zemlya [New Land], Franz Josef Land, etc.). Landscape diversity of these regions is poor owing to the young age of surfaces, climate extremes and, correspondingly, poor biota scope. Landscapes of various-age moraine and sea sediments and stony substrates are widely displayed. Micro- and nanoreliefs are formed by stony rings, spots, mineral polygons, and mounds. The vegetation cover is noted for absolute domination of spore plants – algae, lichens, liverworts (Hepaticae) and mosses (Bryophytes). They form a fine film of life together with flower plant fragments (Saxifraga sp.sp., Puccinelia sp.sp., Poa sp.sp.). Local flora of vascular plants (species number per 100 km²) amounts to only 20 to 30 species. For instance, flora of Franz Josef Land, located totally in the polar desert biome, include about 60 species. Common species from the vertebrate animals’ pool are those associated with the sea – polar bear (Ursus maritinus), polar fox (Alopex lagopus), walrus (Odobaenus rosmarus), and seals. Landscapes and biota of this biome are conserved in a special zakaznik Zemlya Frantsa Iosifa (Franz Josef Land).

Arctic tundra

The biome has a circumpolar disposition. In European Russia, Arctic tundra is found on the Arctic Ocean islands (Southern Island of the Novaya Zemlya [New Land], the Kolguev, etc.). In the Asian part of Russia, Arctic tundra forms a relatively narrow belt along the Kara, Laptev, North East, and Chukchee Seas (Yamal and Taimyr Peninsulas, coast of Yakutia and Chukotka) and on archipelagoes Novosibirskie Islands and Severnaya Zemlya (Northern Land). Maritime plain landscapes with polygonal, spotty and spotty-moundy tundra, polygonal wetlands and brine marshes of delta areas are common for these regions. The vegetation layer demonstrates a large share of flower plants, with Dryas octopetala, D. puctata, Cassiope tetragona, Salix polaris, Graminae, Cyperacae, and Saxifragacea dominating. Lichens and mosses form a 5–10 cm stratum preventing deep melting of permafrost. Local flora of this biome account for 70 to 100 species per 100 km². The vertebrate fauna normally include reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), polar fox (Alopex lagopus), lemmings (Lemmus sibirica, Dycrostonyx torquatus), geese, Alpine ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus), and numerous species of ducks and waders. For the last decades, a tendency toward Arctic tundra destruction has been manifested where oil and gas prospecting, extraction, and transportation take place, i.e., on Kolguev Island and the Yamal and Gydan Peninsulas. The Novaya Zemlya nuclear test site is situated within this biome. Rare and extinct plant species are few in number, and the best known rare animal species are walrus (Odobaenus rosmarus), Bewick’s swan (Cygnus bewickii), snow goose (Chen hyperboreus) and barnacles (Branta sp.sp.). Biota and landscapes of Arctic tundra are presented in zapovedniks Bolshoi Arktichesky (on the islands and coast of Taimyr Peninsula), Ust-Lensky (in the Lena River estuary) and Ostrov Vrangela (Vrangel Island, in the Chukchee Sea).

Subarctic tundra

This landscape structure is dominated by spotty and polygonal plain tundras, moundy wetlands, and bushlands in tundra river valleys. The vegetation layer demonstrates a wide range of shrubs (Betula nana, Salis sp.sp., Alnaster fruticosa), small shrubs (Vaccinium sp.sp., Empetrum nigrum), Graminae and Cyperacae. Bryoflora are remarkably abundant in species (150 to 200 at specific points). The local flora of vascular plants, in comparison with that of the previous biome, are more than doubled and include 250 to 300 species per 100 km². Vertebrate fauna also are several times richer: at a specific geographic point, 70 to 100 bird species and about 20 t0 25 mammals can be found. Among rare species, most interesting are falcons (Falco rusticolus, F. peregrinus), swans (Cygnus bewickii), geese (Anser erythropus), and barnacles (Rufibrenta ruficolis). In European Russia, subarctic tundra biota are conserved only in the Lapland zapovednik (Kola Peninsula) and in Asian Russia, in Taimyrsky and Putoransky zapovedniks (mountain tundra of the Taimyr), in Ust-Lensky zapovednik, in the Bering Nature Park and in some zakazniks.

Boreal coniferous forests (dark-coniferous taiga)

This biome is common for flatlands and mountains of European Russia and Siberia. It represents a comparatively high level of landscape diversity, even though its vegetation layer is monotonous and consists merely of up to five tree species: spruce (Picea abies, P. obovata), fir (Abies sibirica), cedar (Pinus sibirica), pine (Pinus sylvestris), and larch (Larix sp.sp.). The diversity of taiga landscapes is dictated by a lot of factors: paleogeographic, geochemical, climatic, and biogeographic. For example, mountain spruce forests on nepheline rocks and fresh moraine deposits are common for the Kola Peninsula. On the Valdai Uplands in the north-east of European Russia, taiga landscapes (spruce forests, wetlands, meadows) are formed on the argillaceous moraine of oses and kames, fluvioglacial sands of the outwashed plain, and in river valleys. In West Siberia they are formed on horizontal tertiary and quaternary deposits (glacial and marine). This biome is notably more diverse than tundra: local vascular flora consist of 400 to 700 species; nesting bird fauna, 120 to 150 species; and mammal fauna, up to 40 to 50. Russian taiga flora and fauna almost completely lack endemic species. Rare plant and animal species are low in number. For instance, there are no rare mammal species, and among birds may be singled out only predators and Siberian spruce grouse (Falcipennis falcipennis). In this biome, landscapes of plain and mountain taiga and habitats of typical forest animals, such as brown bear (Ursus arctos), elk (Alces alces), lynx (Lynx lynx), otter (Lutra lutra), beaver (Castor fiber), and sable (Martes zibellina), can be identified as subjects for conservation. Ecosystems of the biome are protected in the Kivach, Kostomukshsky, Pinezhsky, Pechoro-Ilychsky, Malaya Sosva, Kerzhensky, Visimsky, Zeisky, Barguzinsky, and Central Siberian zapovedniks.

Larch forests (light-coniferous taiga and thin forest)

This biome is common for central and eastern Siberia, Okhotsk coast, the Far East, and Transbaikalia. Larch forests (Larix dahurica, L. sibirica, L. sukaczewii) occupy slopes of low mountains and northern river valleys filled with loose quaternary sediments permafrost-fixed to a depth of hundreds of meters. Debris of Japanese stone pine (Pinus pumila), mountain thin forests and tundra are widespread in these regions. This biome is the poorest in biodiversity of all forest biomes. Its local flora and fauna include no more than 400 to 450 vascular plant species, 30 to 40 mammal species, and 70 to 80 species of nesting birds. The only exceptions are the fragments of steppes, until they reach the boundary with tundra. They often occupy southern slopes of mountains or wide sections of river valleys, including the Lena River. The biome of Siberian larches actually has no endemic plant and animal species, and rare and endangered species are scarce. Landscape and biological diversities of this biome are protected in Putoransky, Magadansky, Olekminsky, and other zapovedniks.

Broad-leaved and coniferous-broad-leaved forests

In Russia, this biome has a disjunctive geographic range, i.e., it is found on the Russian Plain and in the south of the Far East. Forest dominants are oak, maple, linden, and ash species (Querqus sp.sp., Acer sp.sp., Tilia sp.sp., Fraxinus sp.sp.). Close to the northern boundary of the range, forests are marked with coniferous species: spruce (Picea abies, P. obovata, P. ajanesis), cedar (Pinus sibirica), and fir (Abies sibirica, A. nephrolepis, A. holophilia). Pine (Pinus sylvestris) is spread over the most dry sections with sandy and stony soils almost throughout the geographic range. As this part of the biome is located close to the boundary, it is noted for a high level of plant and animal diversity, both boreal and nemoral. Local flora reach 700 to 800 species, mammal fauna consist of 50 to 60 species (up to 70 in the Far East), and bird fauna offer 120 to 150 species. Biota endemism is not high, though rare species of plants (Cyprepedium sp.sp., Panax schin-seng, Trapa sp.sp.) and animals (Panthera tigris, P. pardus) have relatively wide representation. Broad-leaved forests are protected in the Bashkirsky, Volzhsko-Kamsky, Voronezhsky, Bryansky Les, Zhigulevsky, Ilmensky, Kedrovaya Pad, Sikhote-Alinsky, Les na Vorksle, Prioksko-Terrasny, Ussuriisky, Khopersky, Shulgan-Tash, Khingansky, and other zapovedniks (see Annex 5.2.11).

Forest steppe and steppe

Within Russia and adjacent countries, zonal steppe ecosystems have a broad geographic range that includes a southern part of the Russian Plain, south of West Siberian Lowlands, and intermountain hollows in the south of Central Siberia and Transbaikalia. The landscape is dominated with monotonous grasslands, where the gramineous prevail. Biological diversity of the biome is very high. In forest steppes, for example, local flora are composed of up to 900 to 1,100 species of vascular plants; in dry steppes, this number becomes 600 to 700, and, in arid steppes, 400 to 500 species. Local fauna are a little inferior to the forest steppes and present 40 to 50 mammal species and 80 to 90 species of nesting birds. Flora and fauna endemism is not vividly expressed. Endemic plants include a lot of relict species that have habitats on limestone and have remained in the steppe zone since the interglacial period.

Steppes, particularly in European Russia, are almost completely plowed up. That is why their landscape and biological diversities need urgent conservation and restoration. This zone is indicative of a high level of rare and endangered flora and fauna species: among plants, Stipa sp.sp., Adonis vernalis, Crambe tatarica, Centaurea sp.sp., Fritillaria sp.sp., Paeonia tenuifolia; among vertebrates, Vormela peregusna and birds of prey. Positive experimental results of ecological restoration efforts were obtained in Northern Caucasia and some Central Russian oblasts. The steppe biome is facing the serious problem of generating an ecological network of protected areas. Current conservation of steppe ecosystems is carried out in the Bashkirsky, Galichia Gora, Dagestansky, Povolzhskaya Step, Severo-Ossetinsky, Khopersky, Tsentralno-Chernozemny, and Orenburgsky zapovedniks.

Semiarid and arid lands

Semiarid and arid ecosystems of Russia are located to the south of arid steppes. As a zonal phenomenon, they are spread over the Caspian Lowlands and in Dagestan (deltas of the Terek and Samur Rivers, and others). Asian Russia demonstrates semiarid and arid fragments on the Kazakhstan border, in hollows of the South Siberian mountains, in the south of Tuva and in Transbaikalia. Within this biome, ecosystems found to prevail are those with wormwood (Artemisia sp.sp.), gramineous (Festuca sp.sp., Agropyrum sp.sp., Poa Bulbosa, Stipa sp.sp., Bothriochloa sp.sp., Aristida sp.sp.), ephemerals and ephemeroids (Tulipa sp.sp., Eremurus sp.sp., Alyssum sp.sp., Papaver sp.sp.) along with shrubs and trees (Calligonum sp.sp., H. aphyllum, Cragana arborescens). Forests consisting of Populus sp.sp., Salix sp.sp.., Eleagnus sp.sp. and meadows with Phargmites communis, Calamagrostis sp.sp., Elytrigia repens, Glycyrrhiza glabra are common for banks and deltas of arid zone rivers.

Semiarid and arid ecosystems of North Eurasia are basically used for cattle grazing, and occasionally for hay-making and lumber harvesting. Biome large areas are used for irrigated land cultivation. Anthropogenic transformation has led to drastic changes in the biome landscape and biological diversities. Wild ecosystems on tremendous areas are replaced by broken sands, saline lands, and depleted pastures. All periphery lands of the biome are undergoing intensive aridization.

Local flora of semideserts consist of 150 to 250 species, those of deserts, 100 to 150 species; mammal fauna consist of 25 to 30 species and nesting birds amount to 40 to 50 species. In addition, high diversity of reptilian species should be particularly marked with their local fauna comprising 25 to 30 species. A valuable biological object to be conserved and reasonably used is saiga population (Saiga tatarica) in the Caspian Lowlands (Astrakhan oblast and Kalmykia). Intensive exploitation of Russian arid ecosystems has led to a depletion of biodiversity and growth of the rare species number, especially among vertebrates: Felis manul, Aquila rapax, etc.

Biological and landscape diversities of Russian semiarid and arid lands are protected in the Chernye Zemlya, Dagestansky, and Ubsunurskaya Kotlovina zapovedniks.


NATURE PROTECTED AREAS
Arkadi Tishkov

In 2000, the centennial of the first wildlife preserve establishment was celebrated in Russia and the neighboring countries. The system of state wildlife preserves evolved during this period is among the world's best and includes (in line with the Federal Law on Wildlife Preserves) strict state nature reserves (zapovednikis), national parks, hunting grounds, natural landmarks, and natural parks and zones of traditional nature management supervised by the small nations of the North, Siberia, and the Far East.

As of 1 January 2001, Russia had a total of 100 strict state nature reserves (zapovednikis), 35 national parks, more than 8,000 natural landmarks, and 1,600 natural reserves and hunting grounds (zakazniks). In a number of regions (Kamchatka, the Far East, Kemerovo oblast, and others) regional natural parks have been established. A comparatively new development is the establishment of traditional nature management zones in the north of European Russia (Nenetz autonomous region), on Yamal and Taimyr peninsulas, along the middle reaches of Yenisei river, in Khabarovsk territory, in the Far East, and in other places. Legal and economic mechanisms supporting the normal functioning of such territories in the areas compactly inhabited by the “small” indigenous nations of the North are still lacking. Thus the creation of such zones is a matter of the not-so-immediate future for the 26 “small” nations of Russia that have a combined population of 200,000. The creation in the early 90s of more than 2,000 individual and cooperative communities among the “small” nations of the North has actually led to the deterioration of the environmental situation. The major problem is the lack of a sales system for the deer meat, furs, and fish that the indigenous people produce.

After Russia and her neighboring countries joined a number of international conventions, a network of wildlife preserves of international importance started to form. Wetlands protection came first: they were preserved under the Ramsar Convention. Currently there are more than 35 such areas on the territory of the former USSR, including the ones along the Arctic shores, Volga river mouth, in the Manych-Gudilo basin on the south of European Russia, and others.

In 1995, UNESCO added to its Global Heritage List 3.2 million hectares of pristine forests in Komi Republic. This first nomination in the natural heritage category in our country saved the unique forests from cutting and led to the suspension of a gold mining project in the northern part of the Yugyd Va National Park. In the last years, UNESCO Global Heritage Committee decided to include more Russian territories in the Global Cultural and Natural Heritage List: the Baikal Lake Basin and Kamchatka Volcanoes, Altai, Karelia, etc.

Baikal accounts for about 20% of global freshwater reserves (three-fourths of total Commonwealth of Independent States rivers over-the-surface discharge). This is an ancient freshwater pool with unique endemic flora and fauna. The total territory of Lake Baikal’s Basin accounts for more than 3 million hectares, which puts it among the Global Heritage List’s largest landmarks. It can be compared with the territory of Belgium. Baikal’s addition to the List is another attempt to stop its degradation due to industrial activities.

The Kamchatka Volcanoes include active and dormant volcanoes, the Kronotsky Biosphere Reserve with its unique Geyser Valley, and surrounding still-pristine areas. Project activities have led the Kamchatka administration to a decision to establish new natural parks. More than 3 million hectares of the peninsula’s pristine natural areas untouched by human activities are now saved from wildcat gold mining and encroachments of loggers.

In the near future, the wildlife reserves’ share in the land resources of the former USSR countries and primarily Russia should exceed 3% (they are currently at 2.1%). Furthermore, the network they represent should create an “ecological framework,” which should promote implementation of the idea of regional and federal sustained development as well as provide support for carrying out the many obligations under the international conventions (On Biological Diversity, Global Natural and Cultural Heritage, Wetlands, and others).

The President’s Decree of 2 October 1992 No 1155 “On the Russian Federation protected areas” entrusted the Russian Federation Government – in cooperation with executive power bodies of republics within the Russian Federation, krais, oblasts and autonomous areas – with implementing the Project on a rational network of state zapovedniks and national parks by expanding these areas to 3% of the Russian Federation area.

This effort resulted in the list of state zapovedniks and national parks recommended to be established on Russian Federation territory in 1994–2000, approved by the Russian Federation Government resolution of April 1994, No 572-r. The list recommended that 72 new state zapovedniks and 42 new national parks be set up – with a total area of 1,035,500 square kilometers (km²) in 8 republics, 6 krais, and 28 oblasts and autonomous districts and areas by the end of 2005.

Certain socio-economic challenges make the implementation of this plan in its full size rather unfeasible. Yet, starting with 1992, the state zapovedniks network has been developing quite intensively: 21 new zapovedniks were set up and areas of another 11 were expanded. Thus the the area of Russian zapovedniks has increased by 30%. The same period was marked by the creation of 15 new national parks, their total area being 301,000 km². This measn that the total area of Russian national parks has grown by 45% (see table below).

Dynamics of the Russian zapovedniks and national park system development.

A network of federal-level state natural zakazniks has been developing less intensively during recent years. Since 1992, four federal zakazniks have been established with a total area of more than 48,000 km², including the largest natural reserve of Russia: the state natural zakaznik Zemlia Frantsa Iosifa, with 42,000 km².

On the basis of proposals from local bodies, the Federal government, on 18 December 1996, approved a list of federal-level state natural zakazniks recommended to be established on Russian Federation territory for the period to 2005. This list provides for the creation of 40 federal zakazniks with a total area of more than 24,000 km² on the territory of 25 Russian Federation subjects.

In several Russian regions, state authorities have ratified regional schemes for prospective development of protected areas. For example, the decision of the Nizhni Novgorod oblast executive body of 22 March 1994, No, 57 approved the list of newly revealed natural objects and areas being designated unique and potentially belonging to the nature conservation fund. According to this decision, privatization, land lease, land allotment, building, melioration, road-breaking, and mining were suspended (unless state ecological experts found positive reasons for them) within the limits of these areas and objects until statutes were issued concerning them.

Zapovedniks of Russian Federation (1 January 2001)

Zapovedniks of Department on Environmental Protection of Ministry of Nature Resources).

Zapovedniks of Ministry of Education, Russian Academy of Sciences.

National parks of Russian Federation (1 January 2001)

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