OBLAST DESCRIPTIONS

Back

SUBJECTS OF THE FEDERATION

ADYGEI REPUBLIC

Adygei Republic is situated in the north-western part of the Caucasus. Since 1918 it had been within Kuban-Chernomorskaya Soviet Republic, since 1922 it had been Adygei (Cherkessk) autonomous oblast, since 1928 it had been Adygei Autonomous Obl ast, since 1991 it has become Adygei Republic. Its area is 7,600 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 449,300 ths. people, comprising: 22.1% Adygeis, 68.0% Russians, 3.2% Ukrainians, and others 6.7%. The density of the population is 59.1 per km2, the urban population 54%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 166,700 capital Maikop, 12,700 Adygeisk.
The northern part of Adygeya is situated on Prikuban Plain, the southern part - on slopes of the Great Caucasus, heights up to 3238 m (Chugush mountain). The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -2oC, and in July 22oC. Precipitation is about 700 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 150 days. Rivers relate to the Kuban basin, the large rivers are: Laba, Belaya, Chokhrak; in the low courses of some rivers there are plavs. The soils are mostly leached and compact chernozems as well as sod-calcareouses. Forests occupy about 40% of the territory (mainly in the mountainous part). Oak, beech, hornbeam, maple, ash-tree and other broad-leaved species prevail. There are many wild fruit-berry trees. On the territory of the republic the main part of the Caucasus reserve is located.
There are crops of wheat, corn, barley, tobacco, sunflower, sugar-beet, etc. There are vegetable-growing, melon-growing, vine-growing, and gardening. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 40.4% cereal crops; 18.0% industrial crops; 10.2% potatoes, vegetables and melons and gourds; 31.4% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 2.82 grain, 7.1 potatoes, 8.0 vegetables. There is beef and dairy stockbreeding. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 70.4 cattle including 39.4 cows; and 30.9 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 148.6 grain; 91.0 potatoes; 56.2 vegetables; 13.8 meat; and 101.6 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 148 km railways, and 1509 km main roads. The Kuban river is used for navigation.
Top of Page

AGIN-BURYAT NATIONAL OKRUG

Agin-Buryat National Okrug is situated in the south of Transbaikalia. It was established on September 26, 1937. It is a subject of the Russian Federation within Chita Oblast with an area of 19,000 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 79,100 people comprising: 54.9% Buryats, 40.8% Russians, and others 4.3%. The density of population is 4.2 per km2, the urban population 32%. The center is Aginskoe settlement (9,400 people by 01.01.1999).
The relief is mostly mountainous, in the western part up to 1663 m, in the south a slightly rolling plain lies. The climate is extreme continental. Winter is cold, with little snow; the average temperature in January is -24oC. Summer is hot, the average temperature in July is 18oC. Precipitation is about 400 mm per year. The vegetative season is 90-150 days. The main river is Onon, in the south there are many small lakes. The soils in the mountains are podzolized, cryomorphic taiga, and greis forest, on plains carbonate, chestnut, and chernozemic. There are many solonchaks. The vegetation is steppe (sagebrush - feather-grass steppes) and forest-steppe, in the mountains - mountain-taiga (larch [Larix Daurica] prevails). Forests occupy 30% of the territory.
Fine-fleeced sheep-breeding prevails. Cattle (dairy trend)-, pig-, horse-breeding, poultry raising are also present. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 71.0 cattle including 27.2 cows; and 21.8 pigs. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 84.1% cereal crops; 0.4% industrial crops; 4.0% potatoes and vegetables; and 11.4% fodder crops. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 29.5 grain; 6.8 potatoes; 2.4 vegetables; 8.1 meat; and 37.0 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 71 km railways, and 903 km main roads.

ALTAI KRAI

Altaisky Krai is situated in the south-east of West Siberian plain; it has borders with Kazakhstan. It was established on September 28, 1937 with an area of 169,100 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 2,664,800 people, comprising: 89.5% Russians, 4.8% Germans, 2.9% Ukrainians, others 2.8%. The density of population is 15.8 per km2, the urban population 52.4%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 583,000 the center Barnaul, 224,800 Biysk, and 163,900 Rubtsovsk.
In the central part of the krai the river Ob flows. Eastwards of it there are foothills and slopes of Salairsky ridge, westwards there are Kulundinskaya plain and Priobskoe plateau. The climate is continental. Winter is cold, with little snow, the average temperature in January is -190C. Summer is short, warm, the average temperature in July is 190C. Precipitation is 250-300 mm per year. The vegetative season is 160-170 days. A great part of the territory is irrigated by therivers of the Ob and its tributaries - Biya and Katun-basin, the other rivers belong to a closed drainage area of Kulundinskaya steppe basin. The large lakes are Kulundinskoe and Kuchukskoe. Altai krai is situated in the steppe and forest-steppe zones. The soils are mostly chernozems and pine forest sands; the major part of the steppe is ploughed up. Pine forests and birch kolkis are preserved.
There is large production of grain, milk, and meat. Sunflower, sugar-beet, and flax are cultivated. Fruit-growing is present. There are sheep-breeding, poultry raising, bee-keeping, spotted deer- and maral-breeding. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 64.4% cereal crops, 5.7% industrial crops; 2.1% potatoes and vegetables; and 27.8% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) are: 0.9 grain, 10.9 potatoes, and 15.1 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 1040.2 cattle including 486.8 cows; and 516.8 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 3073.7 grain; 761.2 potatoes; 186.9 vegetables; 124.4 meat; and 1059.7 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1803 km railways, and 14267 km main roads (the most important - Chuisky highway from Biysk to Mongolia).The Ob is used for navigation.

AMURSKAYA OBLAST

Amurskaya Oblast is situated in the south of the Far East; it borders with China. It was established on October 20, 1932 with an area of 363,700 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,007,700 ths. people, comprising: 86.8% Russians, 6.7% Ukrainians, and others 6.5%. The density of population is 2.8 per km2, the urban population 65.7%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 219,600 center Blagoveschensk, 74,500 Belogorsk, 71,800 Svobodny, and 48,000 Tynda.
The oblast is situated between Stanovoi Range (heights up to 2313 m) in the north and the Amur river in the south. The relief is mostly mountainous, parallel with Stanovoi Range there is a chain of ranges, in the north and south there are plains. The climate is effected by monsoons. Winter is dry, cold, cloudless with little snow. The average temperature in January is from -240C in the south to -330C in the north. Summer is hot (in the south), rainy. The average temperature in July is from 210C in the south to 180C in the north. Precipitation is about 850 mm per year. Permafrost is widespread. The vegetative season is 125-170 days. A great part of the territory is drained by the left tributaries of the Amur, the largest are Zeya (with Selemdzha) and Bureya. In the north-west there are rivers of the Lena basin (Olekma with Nyukzha tributary), in the north-east there are rivers of of the Uda (the Maya) basin.
The oblast is situated in the zones of taiga, mixed and broad-leaved forests. The soils are brown forest, including podzolized and alluvial-gley, mountain brown taiga and mountain taiga permafrost. In the south of the oblast - chernozem-like meadow rich in humus. Forests (the main species is larch) occupy 62.5% of the territory. A considerable area of plains is occupied by maris. The Zeisky and Khingansky reserves are located on the territory of the oblast.
There are crops of soya-beans, potatoes, fodder crops, vegetables. Beef and dairy stockbreeding, poultry raising, bee-keeping, reindeer-breeding (in the north), fur farming are presented. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 40.1% cereal crops; 25.4% industrial crops; 4.1% potatoes and vegetables; and 30.4% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) are: 0,65 grain, 11.7 potatoes, and 15.2 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 157.1 cattle including 77.9 cows; and 108.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 304.8 grain; 347.8 potatoes; 102.3 vegetables; 21.8 meat; and 203.3 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 2982 km railways (Transsiberian and Baikaloamurskaya main lines), 6807 km main roads. The Amur, Zeya, Bureya rivers, etc. are used for navigation.

ARKHANGELSKAYA OBLAST

Arkhangelskaya Oblast is situated in the north of Europen Russia; it is washed by the White and Barents seas. It was established on September 23, 1937. Nenets Autonomous Okrug being a subject of the Russian Federation forms a part of the oblast. Its area is 587,400 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,478,000 people, comprising: 92.1% Russians, 3.4% Ukrainians, 0.5% peoples of the North, and others 4.0%. The density of population is 2.5 per km2, the urban population 73.2%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 367,200 center Arkhangelsk, 237,000 Severodvinsk, 66,500 Kotlas, 48,700 Novodvinsk, and 44,400 Koryazhma.
The oblast is situated in the north of East European Plain. In the central and southern parts there is a rolling plain with plateau-like upland, in the north-west and north there are chains of hills up to 471 m, in the north-east there is Pai-Khoi range. Eastwards of Timansky ridge there is a vast swamped Petchorskaya Lowland the major part of which is occupied by Bolshezemelskaya and Malozemelskaya tundras; in its central part there are morainic ridges. Almost all rivers relate to the Arctic ocean basin, the largest are Severnaya Dvina (with tributaries Vychegda, Pinega, Vaga), Onega, Mezen, Pechora; there are about 2.5 thousand lakes there. The climate is temperate continental, in the north-east it is subarctic with cool summer and cold long winter. The average temperature in January falls from the west to the east from -12 to -180C, in July - from the south to the north from 16 to 80C. Precipitation is 300-500 mm per year. On the coast of the White Sea fogs are frequent. In the north of the oblast permafrost is widespread. The vegetative season is from 10 days in the north-east to 110 days in the south.
The north-eastern part of the oblast is situated in the tundra zone. The soils are podzolic gleys peat and peaty, podzols gleyic, and peats high moor. In the forest-tundra zone light forests combine with treeless tundra areas, peat gley and slightly podzolic soils prevail. Forests occupy about a half of the oblast territory and belong to the northern and middle taiga. The main species are spruce, pine-tree, larch, fir-tree. The soils are mainly gley podzolic, peat bog, podzolic, hydromorphic podzolic. On the territory of the oblast there are the Vodlozersky and Kenozersky national parks, and the Pinezhsky reserve.
There is beef and dairy stockbreeding (highly productive kholmogorskaya breed); pigs, sheep, goats breeding, poultry raising, reindeer-breeding (in the north). Fur farming (polar fox, mink); sea-hunting industry are also present. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 12.1% cereal crops; 12.7% potatoes and vegetables; and 75.2% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) are: 0.79 grain, 16.6 potatoes, and 17.2 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 149.0 cattle including 74.3 cows; and 30.2 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 16.6 grain, 419.6 potatoes; 79.2 vegetables; 22.2 meat; and 190.0 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1764 km railways, and 6894 km main roads. The Severnaya Dvina with tributaries are used for navigation.

ASTRAKHANSKAYA OBLAST

Astrakhanskaya Oblast is situated on Prikaspiyskaya Lowland at the inflow of the Volga into the Caspian Sea. It was established on December 27, 1943 with an area of 44,100 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,019,500 people, comprising: 72.0 Russians, 12.8 Kazakhs, 7.2 Tatars, and others 8.0%. The density of the population is 23.1 per km2, the urban population 67.0%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 483,700 center Astrakhan, 49,000 Akhtubinsk, and 36,100 Znamensk.
The surface is mainly flat, heights up to 150 m (Bolshoe Bogdo mountain); it is partially situated below sea level. On Volgo-Akhtubinskaya flood-plain there are near-channel grivas, high sandy ridges, many arms, bayou lakes. The climate is extreme continental, arid. The average temperatures are: in January -60C, and in July about 250C, precipitation is about 200 mm per year. The vegetative season is 200-215 days. In its mouth the Volga divides into numerous branches, in the flood-plain and delta there are many fresh-water lakes. There are many salt lakes, the largest one is Baskunchak.
The oblast is situated in the semi-desert zone. The soils are browns solonetzic and solonchacous, alluvials meadow, and sands. In the vegetation cover cereals, sagebrush, solyanki (Salsola) prevail. In Volgo-Akhtubinskaya flood-plain and delta of the Volga there are meadows, flood-plain forests and reed brushwood. The Astrakhan reserve is located there.
Cereal crops, mainly rice, vegetables (tomato, etc.), melons (water melons on irrigated lands of Volgo-Akhtubinskaya flood-plain), corn, etc are cultivated. There are meat-wool sheep-breeding and beef-dairy stockbreeding. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 57.0% cereal crops; 1.1% industrial crops; 23.9% potatoes and vegetables; and 18.0% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.67 grain, 5.8 potatoes, 9.1 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 153.6 cattle including 69.0 cows; and 29.0 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 43.5 grain; 87.1 potatoes; 153.2 vegetables; 19.6 meat; and 106.0 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 567 km railways, 2598 km main roads.The Volga river is used for navigation.

BELGORODSKAYA OBLAST

Belgorodskaya Oblast is situated in the south-west of European Russia, it has borders with the Ukraine. It was established on January 6, 1954 with an area of 27,100 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,489,500 people, comprising: 92.9% Russians, 5.5% Ukrainians, and others 1.6%. The density of population is 55.0 per km2, the urban population 64.4%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 336,900 center Belgorod, 211,200 Ctary Oskol, 85,300 Gubkin, 46,200 Shebekino, 38,500 Alekseevka, and 35,000 Valuiki.
The oblast is situated in the south-west of Central Russian Upland (heights up to 276 m); gently rolling erosion plain. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -80C, and in July 200C, precipitation is about 500 mm per year. The vegetative season is 180-190 days. There are rivers of the Don basin (Seversky Donets, Oskol, Tikhaya Sosna), and the Dnieper (Vorskla). The oblast is situated in the forest-steppe zone, in the south there are steppes. The soils are mostly podzolized chernozems, leached, typical, in the south-east - ordinary chernozems, in the north-east - gray forest soils, in river valleys - alluvial. Forests occupy 10% of the territory: oak, ash-tree, maple. The Les na Vorskle, and the Central-Chernozem reserves are located there.
Barley, wheat, sugar-beet, sunflower are cultivated. There are fruit growing, beef-dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and poultry raising. The structure of sown in 1998 was: 44.4% cereal crops; 14.1% industrial crops, 5.3% potatoes and vegetables; and 35.9% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.38 grain, 6.6 potatoes, and 8.8 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 465.2 cattle including 226.2 cows; and 490.1 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1125.7 grain; 569.7 potatoes; 153.1 vegetables; 92.2 meat; and 604.2 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 696 km railways, and 6315 km main roads.

BRYANSKAYA OBLAST

Bryanskaya Oblast is situated in the west of European Russia; it borders with Byelorussia and the Ukraine. It was established on July 5, 1944 with an area of 34,900 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,451,000 people, comprising: 96.0% Russians, others 4.0%. The density of population is 41.6 per km2, the urban population 68.2%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 457,000 center Bryansk, 68,500 Klintsy, 43,500 Novozybkov, and 34,600 Dyadjkovo.
Extremely dissected high erosional plains with altitudes up to 288 m (the western part of Central Russian and Smolenskaya Uplands) combine with flat moraine-outwash plains of Pridnestrovskaya low land. The cimate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -70C, and in July 180C, precipitation is about 600 mm per year (the maximum in summer). The vegetative season is about 180 days. The oblast is situated in the south-taiga and subtaiga natural zones, the extreme south-eastern part - in the forest-steppe zone. The soils are mostly sod podzolic; in the south-east greys forest. Forests occupy about 40% of the territory: pine-tree, birch. The Bryansky Les reserve is located there.
Rye, barley, oats, wheat, sugar-beet, flax-fibre, hemp, hop are cultivated. There are beef-dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and poultry raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 42.0% cereal crops; 0.6% industrial crops; 10.7% potatoes and vegetables; and 46.6% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) are: 1.11 grain, 11.0 potatoes, and 11.2 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 are: 358.6 cattle including 195.5 cows; and 218.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 433.1 grain; 1161.2 potatoes; 196.5 vegetables; 68.9 meat; and 507.9 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1037 km railways, and 5939 km main roads. The Desna river is used for navigation.

CHECHEN REPUBLIC

Chechen Republic is situated in the south of European Russia. In 1922 Chechen Autonomous Oblast was established, in 1924 Ingush Autonomous Oblast was established, and in 1934 they were united into Checheno-Ingush Autonomous Oblast (since 1936 the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic - ASSR). In 1944 Checheno-Ingush ASSR was abolished, and reestablished in 1957. The area (together with the Republic of Ingushetia) is 19,300 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 780,500 people, comprising: 66.0% Chechens, 24.8% Russians, 2.3% Ingushs, and others 6.9%. The density of population is 56.9 per km2, the urban population 36.8%. The capital is Grozny.
The republic is situated in the central part of the northern slope of the Great Caucasus (heights up to 4493 m) adjoining Chechenskaya Plain and Tersko-Kumskaya Lowland. The climate is continental. The average temperatures in January are from -3 0C on Tersko-Kumskaya Lowland up to -120C in the mountains, in July 25 and 21 0C respectively. Precipitation is 300-1000 mm. The vegetative season (on Tersko-Kumskaya Lowland) is 190 days. The large rivers are Terek, Sunzha with tributary Argun.
The soils on the plain are mainly meadow, chestnut and light chestnut, on high areas leached chernozems; in river valleys alluvial and meadow-swamp, in mountains mountain-forest and mountain-meadow. On Tersko-Kumskaya Lowland there is sagebrush - solyanki (Salsola) vegetation, on moist areas there is tipchak (Festuca sulcata) - feather-grass steppe. On Chechenskaya plain there is steppe and forest-steppe vegetation. In the mountains at heights up to 2200 m there are broad-leaved forests, higher - subalpine and alpine meadows. There are fruit growing, vine growing and vegetables and cereal crops cultivation. Fine-fleeced sheep-breeding, poultry raising, cattle-breeding are present.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 304 km railways, and 3057 km main roads.

CHELYABINSKAYA OBLAST

Chelyabinskaya Oblast is situated in the Southern Urals and Zauralje. It was established on January 17, 1934. In the south-east it borders with Kazakhstan. Its area is 87,900 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 3,678,200 people, comprising: 81.0% Russians, 6.2% Tatars, 4.5% Bashkirs, 3.0% Ukrainians, and others 5.3%. The density of population is 41.8 per km2, the urban population 81.3%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 1,085,800 center Chelyabinsk, 427,000 Magnitogorsk, 198,700 Zlatoust, 166,200 Miass, 88,900 Ozersk, 85,000 Troitsk, and 73,200 Kopeisk.
The oblast is situated mainly on eastern slopes of the Southern Urals and adjoining spaces of Zauralje. The western part is with ridge-hilly relief, the eastern one is plain with gentle grivas. The climate is continental. Winter is cold, long, the average temperatures in January are from -16 up to -180C. Summer is warm, in the south-east hot, the average temperatures in July are 17-200C. Precipitation is from 300 mm on plains up to 600 mm in the mountains per year. The vegetative season is 130-150 days. The main rivers are Ural, and Miass. There are many fresh water and salt lakes.
The oblast is situated in the forest-steppe and northern steppes zone. The soils are mainly chernozems, and grey forest. In the north there are aspen-birch and pine-tree forests, in the central part - forest-steppe, in the south - forb-cereal steppe. In the mountains there are spruce - fir-tree forests with participation of pine-tree, larch, lime-tree and oak. Forests occupy over 25% of the territory. The Zyuratkulj and Taganai National Parks, the Iljmensky Reserve are located there.
There are dairy-beef and beef-wool stockbreeding, poultry raising. Wheat and pea crops, vegetable are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 are: 63.6% cereal crops, 0.7% industrial crops; 3.1% potatoes and vegetables; and 32.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha) in 1995 was: 0.58 grain, 6.8 potatoes, and 11.6 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 620.6 cattle including 289.8 cows; and 332.3 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 642.2 grain; 367.5 potatoes; 134.0 vegetables; 106.7 meat; and 666.1 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1793 km railways, and 8108 km main roads.

CHITINSKAYA OBLAST

Chitinskaya Oblast is situated in Zabaikalje. It was established on September 26, 1937 with an area of 431,500 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,265,900 people, comprising: 88.4% Russians, 4.8% Buryats, 2.8% Ukrainians, and others 4.0%. The density of population is 2.9 per km2, the urban population 62.7%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 311,100 center Chita; 56,200 Krasnokamensk; and 31,600 Borzya.
Mountain of medium height (Yablonovy, Cherskogo, Borshchovochny, Daursky, etc.) ranges and intermontane basins dividing them prevail. In the north in Kodar range there are mountains up to 3072 m. In the south there is a vast Priononskaya Plain. The climate is extreme continental. Winter is sunny, dry and frosty; the average temperatures in January are from -26 to -330C. Summer is very warm, short, the average temperature in July is 17-210C. Precipitation is 120-400 mm per year. Permafrost is widespread. The vegetative season is 120-160 days. The main rivers are Shilka and Argunj (sources of the Amur), Khilok and Chikoi (the Selenga tributaries), Olekma and Vitim (the Lena tributaries). There are many large lakes.
The oblast is situated in the central taiga and steppe zones. The soils are mainly mountain-taiga podzolic; in steppes - chernozems and chestnut; in intermontane basins - meadow-permafrost and meadow-chernozem. Over half of the area is occupied by mountain-taiga forests (larch [Larix Daurica], pine-tree, cedar, birch); in the south on basins bottoms there are cereal-forb steppes. The Daursky and Sokhondinsky reserves are located there.
There are fine-fleeced sheep-breeding, cattle-breeding. In the north there are reindeer-breeding and fur bearing animals hunting. Wheat, oats, and barley are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 76.7% cereal crops; 0.7% industrial crops; 5.9% potatoes and vegetables; and 16.8% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.74 grain, 7.7 potatoes, and 11.5 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 477.4 cattle including 195.7 cows; and 156.4 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 235.9 grain; 151.6 potatoes; 49.5 vegetables; 58.3 meat; 305.1 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 239.9 km railways, and 9626 km main roads. The Shilka river is used for navigation.

CHUKCHI AUTONOMOUS OKRUG

Chukchi Autonomous Okrug is situated in the extreme north-east of Russia. It occupies part of mainland, Chukchi peninsula and a number of islands. It is washed by the East Siberian, Chukchi and Bering seas. A considerable part of the okrug is situated over Arctic Circle. It was established on December 10, 1930 with an area of 27,700 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 83,100 people, comprising: 7.3% Chukchi 66.1% Russians, 16.8% Ukrainians, and others 9.8%. The density of population is 0.1 per km2, the urban population 70.4%. The administrative center is Anadyr (13,000 people by 01.01.1999).
In the north-east there is Chukotskoe Highland (up to 1843 m), in the central part there is Anadyrskoe Tableland, in the south-east - Anadyrskaya Lowland. The climate is severe; on coasts it is marine, in inner regions it is extreme continental. Winter lasts up to 10 months. The average temperatures in January are from -15 to -390C. Precipitation is 200-500 mm per year. The vegetative season in the southern part of the okrug is 80-100 days. Permafrost is widespread. The large rivers are Anadyr, Velikaya, Amguema, Omolon, Bolshoi and Maly Anyui. There are many lakes.
The okrug is situated in the forest-tundra, tundra and arctic deserts zones. The soils are mainly mountain-tundra and peat gley; peat podzolic and alluvial occur. Tundra vegetation prevails. On the upper mountain slopes and on Vrangel island there are arctic deserts. In the Anadyr and other large rivers basins there are insular forests (larch, poplar, willow, birch, alder-tree). The Ostrov Vrangelya reserve is located there.
There are reindeer-breeding, fur bearing animals hunting; dairy stockbreeding, poultry raising, pig-breeding, cage fur farming and hotbed-greenhouse farming. 100% of the cultivated land in 1998 are occupied by potatoes and vegetables. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 6.3 potatoes, and 12.5 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 0.2 cattle 0.2 including 0.1 cows; and 0.7 pigs.The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 0.1 potatoes; 0.1 vegetables; 0.6 meat; and 0.2 milk.
The length of main roads in 1998 was 652 km.

CHUVASH REPUBLIC

Chuvash Republic is situated in the east of European Russia. It was established on July 24, 1920 as Chuvash Autonomous Oblast, on April 21, 1925 it was transformed into Chuvash Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic - ASSR; since 1990 it is Chuvash Republic. Its area is 18,300 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,361,800 people, comprising: 67.8% Chuvashs, 26.7% Russians, 2.7% Tatars, and others 2.8%. The density of population is 74.4 per km2, the urban population 60.4%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 458,500 capital Cheboksary; 124,700 Novocheboksarsk; and 54,900 Kanash.
The republic is situated on East European Plain in the middle course of the Volga. On the right bank there is Privolzhskaya Upland (heights up to 266 m) with Chuvashskoe Plateau, precipitous towards the Volga, greatly dissected by ravines and balkas. On the left bank there is a low plain with bogs and peatbogs. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -130C, and in July 190C. Precipitation is 450-500 mm per year. The vegetative season is 180 days. The main river are Volga with tributaries Sura, Tsivilj, and Anish. There is Cheboksarskoe reservoir. There are Bayou and karst lakes. The republic is situated in the broad-leaved forests zone. The soils are grey forest, and sod-podzolics. Forests (pine-tree, spruce, birch, oak, lime-tree) occupy 32% of the territory. The Chavash Varmane, and Prisursky reserves are located there.
There is beef-dairy stockbreeding. Wheat, rye, oats, barley, hemp, and sugar beet are cultivated. Cattle-breeding, pig-breeding, poultry raising are also present. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 47.0% cereal crops, 0.2% industrial crops; 10.4% potatoes and vegetables; and 42.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.38 grain, 14.6 potatoes, and 11.8 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 356.8 cattle including 186.4 cows; and 298.3 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 458.7 grain; 839.0 potatoes; 111.7 vegetables; 66.7 meat; and 536.0 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 397 km railways, and 4317 km main roads. The Volga and Sura are used for navigation.

EVENKI AUTONOMOUS OKRUG

Evenki Autonomous Okrug is a subject of the Russian Federation within composition of Krasnoyarsky Krai. It is situated in Eastern Siberia. It was established on December 10, 1930 with an area of 767,600 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 19,400 people, comprising: 14.0% Evenks, 67.5% Russians, 5.3% Ukrainians, 3.8% Yakuts, and others 9.4%. The density of population is 0.03 people km2, the urban population 29.5%. The administrative center is Tura, a settlement of town-type.
The okrug is situated within Central Siberian Plateau (heights up to 1701 m on Putorana Plateau). The surface is greatly dissected. About a quarter of the territory is situated over Arctic Circle, permafrost is widespread. The climate is extreme continental. Winter is long and sever, summer is short and warm. The average temperatures are: in January from -26 to -360C, and in July 13-150C. Precipitation is about 400 mm per year. The vegetative season is 60-115 days. The main rivers are Nizhnyaya and Podkamennaya Tunguskas (the Enisei basin), there are many lakes.
Major part of the okrug is situated in the northern and central taiga zones. The soils are mainly mountain-forest podzolic, in the north-west mountain-tundra, in the south derno-podzolic. In the south in forests the main species are larch, spruce and cedar, in the north - larch, more northwards - larch elfin woodland and areas of moss-Lichens tundra. The Putoransky and Tungussky reserves are located there.
There is fur bearing animals hunting, reindeer-breeding, fur farming. Cattle-breeding, pig-breeding, horse-breeding are insignificant. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 90.1% potatoes and vegetables; and 9.9% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 11.7 potato, and 22.0 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 1.1 cattle including 0.5 cows; and 0.5 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 0.7 potatoes; 0.4 vegetables; 0.1 meat; and 0.9 milk.
The length of main roads in 1998 was 17 km. The Nizhnyaya and Podkamennaya Tunguskas are used for navigation.

IRKUTSKAYA OBLAST

Irkutskaya Oblast is situated in Eastern Siberia, westwards of Baikal Lake. It includes a subjest of the Russian Federation Ust-Orda Buryat Autonomous Area. It was established on September 26, 1937 with an area of 767,900 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 2,758,200 people, comprising: 88.5% Russians, 3.5% Ukrainians, 2.7% Buryats, and others 5.3%. The density of population is 3.6 per km2, the urban population 79.4%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 592,400 center Irkutsk, 266,400 Angarsk, 254,500 Bratsk, 106,600 Ust-Ilimsk, and 104,100 Usolje-Sibirskoe.
The oblast is situated in the south-east of Central Siberian Plateau, fringed in the south by the Vostochny Sayan (heights up to 2875 m) and ranges of Pribaikalje. In the north-east there are Severo-Baikalskoe and Patomskoe highlands. The surface of the plateau is strongly dissected by deeply incised river valleys. The climate is continental. Winter is dry and frosty. The average temperatures in January are from -150C in the south to -330C in the north. Summer is hot and dry in the first half, with rains in July-August. The average temperatures in July are 17-190C. Precipitation is about 400 mm per year in the north-western and western mountain slopes up to 800 mm. The vegetative season is 116-127 days. The River network belongs to the Enisei basin (Angara, Nizhnyaya Tunguska) and the Lena (Vitim, Kirenga); Baikal Lake is situated there.
The oblast is situated in the southern taiga zone. Sod carbonate and derno-podzolic soils are widespread, in the southern forest-steppe part - gray forest and chernozemic. Forests (Siberian larch, pine-tree, Siberian cedar) occupy over 75% of the territory. The Pribaikalsky national park, the Baikalo-Lensky and Vitimsky reserves are located there.
In the southern part of the oblast cereal crops (wheat, oats), and fodder crops are cultivated. There are beef-dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, poultry raising. In the north there are reindeer-breeding, fur bearing animals hunting, fur farming. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 52.8% cereal crops; 0.1% industrial crops; 6.4% potatoes and vegetables; and 40.6% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.27 grain, 14.5 potatoes, and 14.3 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 440.9 cattle including 205.5 cows; and 312.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 741.9 grain; 903.4 potatoes; 150.6 vegetables; 76.6 meat; and 495.3 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 2481 km railways (the most important - Transsiberian and Baikalo-Amurskaya main lines), and 11929 km main roads. The Angara, Lena, Vitim rivers and Baikal Lake are used for navigation.

IVANOVSKAYA OBLAST

Ivanovskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on January 14, 1929 with an area of 21,800 km2. According to the 1989 census the population) amounts to 1,232,300 people, comprising: 95.8% Russians, and others 4.2%. The density of population is 56.5 per km2, the urban population 82.8%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 460,700 center Ivanovo, 99,600 Kineshma, 67,200 Shuya, 45,800 Vichuga, and 41,800 Furmanov.
The oblast is situated in the central part of East European Plain, in the interstream of the Volga and the Klyazma. It is low, in some places slightly rolling plain. In the north-west there is a ridge of moraine uplands with heights up to 196 m, in the south-east and on the left bank of the Volga there are lowlands. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -120C, and in July 180C, precipitation is about 600 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 110-140 days. The main river is Volga, in the south - left tributaries of the Klyazma. There are many small lakes, the Gorkovskoe reservoir. The oblast is situated in the southern-taiga zone. The soils are sod-podzolics, and light-gray forest. Forests (birch, spruce, aspen, ash-tree) occupy about 43% of the territory.
There are beef-dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, poultry raising. Wheat, rye, oats, barley are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 38.7% cereal crops; 1.3% industrial crops; 6.1% potatoes and vegetables; and 53.9% fodder crops The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.18 grain, 12.6 potatoes, and 13.7 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 190.8 cattle including 95.6 cows; and 67.7 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 132.6 grain; 163.6 potatoes; 53.7 vegetables; 28.6 meat, and 257.3 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 341 km railways, and 3423 km main roads. The Volga, Klyazma, Teza, Unzha are used for navigation.

JEWISH AUTONOMOUS REGION

Jewish Autonomous Region is situated in Priamurye; it borders with China. It was established on May 7, 1934 with an area of 36,000 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 200,900 people, comprising: 4.2% Jews, 83.2% Russians, 7.4% Ukrainians, and others 5.2%. The administrative center is Birobidzhan with population amounting to 80,800 people (for 01.01.1999).
In the north and north-west there are mountain ranges including offshoots of Bureinsky range (height up to 1207 m); in the south and south-east there is a very swamped in some areas Sredne-Amurskaya lowland. The climate is temperate monsoon. Winter is cold, dry, with little snow. The average temperatures in January are from -210C in the extreme south to -260C in the mountains. Summer is warm, humid, the average temperatures in July are18-210C. Precipitation per year is from 500 mm on the plain up to 800 mm in the mountains. The vegetative season on the plain is 170-175 days. The main river is Amur with tributaries Bidzhan, Bira, and Tunguska.
The oblast is situated in the subtaiga zone and broad-leaved forests. Brown forest often podzolized soils prevail, in the east - meadow-swamp and peat gley soils. Forests (the main species are oak Mongolian, Cedar Korean, spruce Ayanskaya, larch, birch) occupy 36% of the territory. Considerable areas eastwards of the Bira river are occupied by maris and bogs. Meadows of the Amur flood-plain are of great economic importance.
Dairy stockbreeding, poultry raising are developed. Potatoes, vegetables, soy-bean, fodder grain are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 46.4 cereal crops; 31.2 industrial crops; 11.9 potatoes and vegetables; and 10.5 fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.78 grain, 8.8 potatoes, and 5.4 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 23.4 cattle 23.4 including 11.4 cows; and 16.7 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 39.3 grain; 71.1 potatoes; 19.8 vegetables; 3.6 meat; 24.2 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 312 km railways (the most important - Transsiberian main line), 1593 km main lines. The Amur river is used for navigation.

KABARDINO-BALKARIAN REPUBLIC

Kabardino-Balkarian Republic is situated in the south of European Russia, it borders with Georgia. On September 1, 1921 it was established as Kabardinskaya Autonomous Oblast (since 1922 Kabardino-Balkarian); on December 5, 1936 it was transformed into the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic - ASSR. Since 1991 it is Kabardino-Balkarian Republic with an area of 12,500 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 786,300 people, comprising: 48.2% Kabardins, 9.4% Balkarians, 32% Russians, and others 10.4%. The density of population is 62.9 per km2, the urban population 57.6%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 230,800 capital Nalchik; and 59,600 Prokhladny.
The republic is situated on the northern slopes and foothills of the central part of the Great Caucasus with heights up to 5642 m (Elbrus mountain which is the highest top of Russia). In the north there is Kabardinskaya Plain. The climate is continental. The average temperatures are: in January from -40C on the plain to -120C in the mountains, in July from 23 to 40C correspondingly. Precipitation is 500-2000 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 150 days. The main river is Terek with tributaries Malka, Baksan, Chegem, Cherek. The plain is situated in the steppe and forest-steppe zones and is almost completely ploughed up. Soils on the plain are chernozems and dark chestnut, on mountain slopes - mountain meadow. Forests occupy about 10% of the territory, in flood-plains there are hardwood forests. In the mountains the altitudinal zonality is well pronounced: at the heights of 800-1600 m there are broad-leaved forests (mainly beech), up to 2200 m there are coniferous forests (mainly pine-tree), at the heights of 2000-2400 m there are subalpine meadows, higher there are alpine meadows. The Prielbrusje national park, the Kabardinio-Balkarsky reserve are located there.
In agriculture cereal (wheat, corn, millet) and industrial (sunflower, hemp) crops are cultivated; stockbreeding of dairy and dairy-beef trend are being developed. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 45.0% cereal crops; 8.8% industrial crops; 7.5% potatoes, vegetables, melon and gourd; and 38.7% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 2.76 grain, 7.3 potatoes, and 7.2 vegetables. There are cattle-breeding, sheep-breeding, pig-breeding, poultry raising. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 225.6 cattle including 99.8 cows; and 32.2 pigs. There are pure-strain horse-breeding, bee-keeping, and silkworm-breeding. Vine and fruit growing are present. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 215.0 grain; 100.9 potatoes; 111.8 vegetables; 21.7 meat; and 235.6 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 133 km railways, and 2851 km main roads.

KALININGRADSKAYA OBLAST

Kaliningradskaya Oblast is situated in the extreme west of Russia, it borders with Poland and Lithuania; it is washed by the Baltic Sea. The oblast was established on April 7, 1946 with an area of 15,100 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 951,300 people, comprising: 78.5% Russians, 8.5% Byelorussians, 7.2% Ukrainians, 2.1% Lithuanians, and others 3.7%. The density of population is 63.0 per km2, the urban population 77.7%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 426,500 center Kaliningrad, 44,200 Sovetsk, 43,300 Chernyakhovsk, 31,600 Baltijsk, and 28,200 Gusev.
The territory is mainly low, in the south-east there is Baltic ridge with heights up to 230 m. The climate is transitional from marine to temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January from -3 to -50C, and in July 15-170C, precipitation is about 700 mm per year. The vegetative season is 180-200 days. The large rivers are Neman and Pregolya; there are many lakes. The oblast is situated in the mixed forests zone. The soils are sod-podzolics, and brownzems; they are considerably cultivated. Forests (oak, spruce, pine-tree, birch, lime-tree) occupy about 15% of the territory. The Kurshskaya Kosa national park is located there.
There are dairy and beef-dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, poultry raising. Rye, wheat, barley, oats, roots, corn, grasses are cultivated. Fur farming is present. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 43.2% cereal crops; 1.4% industrial crops; 6.4% potatoes and vegetables; and 49.1% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.61 grain, 8.5 potatoes, and 14.1 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 170.3 cattle including 76.6 cows; and 99.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 73.5 grain; 167.1 potatoes; 60.6 vegetables; 32.0 meat; and 238.5 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 570 km railways, 4567 km main roads. The Neman and the Pregolya rivers are used for navigation.

KALUZHSKAYA OBLAST

Kaluzhskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on July 5, 1944 with an area of 29,900 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,087,500 people, comprising: 93.8% Russians, 2.8% Ukrainians, and others 3.4%. The density of population is 36.4 per km2, the urban population 73.4%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 341,300 center Kaluga, 108,100 Obninsk, 44,000 Lyudinovo, 40,600 Kirov, and 30,400 Maloyaroslavets.
In the west and the north-west there is Smolensko-Moskovskaya Upland with heights up to 279 m, in the east there is Central Russian Upland; the relief is erosional. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -100C, and in July 170C, precipitation is up to 650 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 180 days. Rivers belong to the Volga and the Dnieper basins. There are many artificial reservoirs. The oblast is situated in the mixed forests zone. Soils are derno-podzolic of different degree of podzolization, on the interstream area - of swamp type, in valleys - allluvial. Forests (oak, spruce, birch, pine-tree, aspen) occupy 50% of the territory, arable land - 40-50%. The Kaluzhskie Zaseki reserve is located there.
There are dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding. Wheat, rye, barley, oats, flax-fibre are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 29.8% cereal crops; 0.5% industrial crops; 7.8% potatoes and vegetables; and 62.0% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.11 grain, 14.2 potatoes, and 22.1 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 236.0 cattle including 120.2 cows; and 90.0 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 144.2 grain; 449.4 potatoes; 109.1 vegetables; 43.1 meat; and 323.8 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 855 km railways, 4737 km main roads. The Oka river is used for navigation.

KAMCHATSKAYA OBLAST

Kamchatskaya Oblast is situated on Kamchatka peninsula; it is washed by the Sea of Okhotsk, the Bering Sea and the Pacific Ocean. It includes Koryak Autonomous Area which is a subject of the Russian Federation. The oblast was established on October 20, 1932 with an area of 472,300 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 396,100 people, comprising: 81.0% Russians, 9.1% Ukrainians, 1.5% Koryaks, and others 8.4%. The density of population is 0.8 per km2, the urban population is 81.0%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 199,700 center Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 338,700 Elizovo, 34,700 Vilyuchinsk.
The oblast proper occupies the southern part of Kamchatka peninsula. In the western part there is Zapadno-Kamchatskaya lowland, the central part of the peninsula is crossed by two parallel ranges (up to 2485 m), between them there is Tsentralnokamchatskaya Lowland along which the Kamchatka river flows. On Kamchatka there are more than 160 volcanos 28 of which are active. The climate is temperate monsoon, in the central part and in the north it is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -130C, and in July 120C, precipitation is up to 1000 mm per year. The contemporary glaciation is on the area of 866 km2. There are lakes in craters and calderas of volcanoes. Forests are mainly light birch and coniferous (larch [Larix Daurica], spruce [Picea ajanensis], fir-tree) on derno-podzolic soils, on mountain slopes there are brushwoods of cedar and alder-tree elfin wood, in low places there are meadows; in the north there is moss tundra. The Kronotsky reserve is located there.
There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, poultry raising. In the north there are reindeer-breeding, fur bearing animals hunting, fur farming. Potatoes and vegetables are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 1.2% cereal crops; 22.1% potatoes and vegetables; and 76.7% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 12.2 potatoes, and 15.7 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 14.8 cattle including 7.6 cows; and 10.0 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 89.5 potatoes; 42.1 vegetables; 4.1 meat; 16.5 milk.
The length of main roads in 1998 was 1274 km. The Kamchatka river is used for navigation.

KARACHAI-CHERKESS REPUBLIC

Karachai-Cherkess Republic is situated in the south of European Russia, on the northern slope of the Great Caucasus. It was established on January 12, 1922, on April 26 it was separated into Klarachai Autonomous Oblast (??) and Cherkess National Okrug, in 1943 Karachai AO was abolished. In 1957 united Karachai-Cherkess AO was established, since 1991 it is Karachai-Cherkess Republic. Its area is 14,100 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 433,500 people, comprising: 31.2% Karachais, 9.7% Cherkesses, 42.4% Russians, 6.6% Abazins, 3.2% Nogaitses, and others 6.9%. The density of population is 30.7 per km2, the urban population is 45.9%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 121,400 capital Cherkessk, 31,500 Ust-Djeguta, 15,100 Karachaevsk.
In the relief a slightly rolling with wide river terraces piedmont plain, foothills and ranges of the northern slope of the Great Caucasus with the top Elbrus (5642 m) can be singled out (more than 2/3 of the territory). The climate is continental. The average temperatures are: in January from -50C in the north to -100C in the south (in high mountains), and in July 21 and 80C correspondingly, precipitation is from 550 mm per year on plain up to 2500 mm in the mountains. The vegetative season is 140-150 days (on plain). The main river is Kuban with tributaries; there is Kubanskoe reservoir. The republic is situated in mountain steppes and broad-leaved forests zone. Soils in the north are chernozems, to the south are replaced by mountain-forest brown and mountain-meadow. On unploughed areas of the northern part there are steppes and forest-steppes. In the southern mountain part up to 2000 m there are broad-leaved (oak, beech, hornbeam), higher - coniferous (spruce, pine-tree, fir-tree) forests replaced by subalpine and alpine meadows. There is the Teberdinsky reserve and a part of the Caucasian reserve.
Wheat, corn, millet, barley, sunflower, and sugar beet are cultivated. There is fruit-growing. Fields are irrigated by water of Bolshoi Stavropolsky Canal. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 47.3% cereal crops; 9.5% industrial crops; 11.9% potatoes and vegetables; and 31.1% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 2.47 grain, 11.1 potatoes, and 13.4 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 133.0 cattle including 75.9 cows; and pigs117. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 62.0 grain; 170.8 potatoes; 37.9 vegetables; 17.1 meat; and 138.6 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 51 km railways, and 1890 km main roads (including Military-Sukhumi road).

KEMEROVSKAYA OBLAST

Kemerovskaya Oblast is situated in the south of West Siberia. It was established on January 26, 1943 with an area of 95,500 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 3,002,100 people, comprising: 90.5% Russians, 2.1% Ukrainians, 2.0% Tatars, and others 5.4%. The density of population is 31.4 per km2, the urban population 86.7%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 494,000 center Kemerovo, 565,000 Novokuznetsk, 237,800 Prokopievsk, 115,000 Leninsk-Kuznetsky, 110,600 Kiselevsk, 104,600 Mezhdurechensk, and 95,200 Anzhero-Sudzhensk.
On the major part there is Kuznetskaya basin fringed by the Kuznetsky Alatau (heights up to 2178 m), Gornaya Shoria and Salairsky ridge. In the north there are plain areas of West Siberian Lowland. The climate is continental. Winter is long, the average February temperatures are from -17 to -200C, summer is short, but warm, the average July temperatures are 17-200C. Precipitation is 300-500 mm per year, in mountain regions up to 900 mm. The vegetative season is 137-160 days. The main rivers belong to the Ob basin, the largest one is the Tom.
The oblast is situated in the subtaiga and forest-steppe zones. The soils are mainly chernozemic and gray forest. Chernizems occupy especially vast areas in the western part of Kuznetskaya basin. On flood-plain terraces - peat soils. In the north and in the central part of Kuznetskaya basin there is birch forest-steppe. In foothills birch forests with some areas of coniferous forests (larch, pine-tree) prevail. On slopes there are mountain fir-tree-aspen forests. In the extreme north-east besides fir-tree in forests composition there are pine-tree, cedar, and spruce. Forests occupy about 42% of the territory. The Shorsky national park, and the Kuznetsky Alatau reserve are located there.
Agriculture is of a suburban type; in the northern regions wheat, barley, and oats are cultivated. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and bee-keeping. Fur bearing animals hunting is present. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 57.3% cereal crops; 0.35 industrial crops; 6.0% potatoes and vegetables; and 36.3% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.48 grain, 10.9 potatoes, and 15.1 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 367.4 cattle including 182.3 cows; and 353.0 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 730.7 grain; 559.8 potatoes; 116.5 vegetables; 65.6 meat; and 488.6 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1755 km railways, and 5485 km main roads. The Tom river is used for navigation.

KHABAROVSKY KRAI

Khabarovsky Krai is situated in the Far East. It is washed by the Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan. It was established on October 20, 1938 with an area of 788,600 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,523,300 people, comprising: 86.4% Russians, 6.1% Ukrainians, and others 7.5%. The density of population is 1.9 per km2, the urban population 81.0%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 611.2 center Khabarovsk, 296,000 Komsomolsk-na-Amure, 54,300 Amursk, 32,700 Nikolaevsk-na-Amure.
A great part of the territory is occupied by mountain ranges including Sikhote-Alin and Dzugdzur in the east, Bureinsky in the south-west, Suntar-Khayata (with heights up to 2933 m) in the north. In the north-west there is highland, in the south and in the central part as well as on the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk there are vast lowlands. The climate is temperate monsoon with cold with little snow winter and warm humid summer. The average temperatures are: in January from -220C in the south up to -40 0C in the north; on sea coast from -15 to -250C; and in July from 110C in seaside regions up to 210C in inner areas. Precipitation is from 400 mm in the north up to 800 mm in the south and 1000 mm on eastern slopes of Sikhote-Alin per year. In the north permafrost is widespread. The vegetative season in the south of the krai is 170-180 days. About half of the territory is drained by the Amur tributaries, the largest are Bureya, Tunguska, Goryun, Amgunj, Ussuri, Anyuj, and Gur. In the north-western areas of the krai rivers of the Lena basin flow: Maya, and Uchur. Many rivers inflow directly into the Sea of Japan and the Sea of Okhotsk.
Mountain regions are situated in the taiga zone (larch, spruce, and fir-tree). On Amurskaya Lowland there are forests of subtaiga type of fur-tree and oak. Derno-podzolic and swamp soils prevail. In the southern regions brown taiga soils form. Forests (the main species are larch [Larix Daurica], spruce [Picea ajanensis], oak [Quercus mongolica]) occupy 50% of the territory. Considerable areas on lowlands are occupied by maris and bogs. The Bolshekhekhtsirsky, Botchinsky, Bureinsky, Dzugdzursky, Komsomolsky reserves are located there.
Oats, barley, wheat, soy-bean, potatoes and vegetables are cultivated. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, poultry raising, and bee-keeping. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 17.7% cereal crops, 11.7% industrial crops; 35.9% potatoes and vegetables; and 34.6% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.99 grain, 13.2 potatoes, and 16.6 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 59.7 cattle including 30.8 cows 30.8; and 45.5 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 26.7 grain; 327.3 potatoes; 145.3 vegetables; 11.2 meat; and 74.5 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 2307 km railways, and 4003 km main roads. The Amur is used for navigation.

KHANTY-MANSI AUTONOMOUS OKRUG

Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug is a subject of the Russian Federation within composition of Tyumenskaya Oblast. It is situated in Western Siberia, in the Ob and Irtysh basin. It was established on December 10, 1930 (until 1940 it had been called Ostyako-Vogulsky Autonomous Okrug). Its area is 523,100 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,383,500 people, comprising: 0.9% Khanty, 0.5% Mansi, 66.3% Russians, 11.6% Ukrainians, 7.6% Tatars, 2.4% Bashkirs, 2.2% Byelorussians, and others 8.5%. The density of population is 2.6 per km2, the urban population 91.5%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 38,200 center Khanty-Mansiysk, 278,400 Surgut, 238,900 Nizhnevartovsk, 98,100 Nefteyugamsk, 60,000 Nyagan, and 54,900 Kogalym.
The okrug is situated in the central part of West Siberian Plain. Lowlands combine with uplands, in the west there are eastern slopes of the Severny and Pripolyarny Urals (heights up to 1646 m). The climate is continental, with sever long winter (about 9 months) and relatively warm summer. The average temperatures are: in January from -18 to -230C, and in July 16-190C. Precipitation is about 500 mm per year. In the north there is permafrost. The vegetative season in the south is 120-130 days. The main river is Ob with large tributaries: Irtysh (lower course), Severnaya Sosjva, Vakh, Pim, Lyamin, Nazym, and Kazym. There are over 1500 lakes form entire systems, and many swamped areas.
The okrug is situated in the northern and central taiga zones. Peats high moor, gleyzems taiga differentiated, and podzols illuvial-ferrugenous soils prevail. Forests occupy over 30% of the territory. Coniferous species (spruce, pine-tree, cedar) prevail, in hard-wood forests there is mainly birch. In flood-plains there are flood-plain meadows. The Malaya Sosjva, and Yugansky reserves are located there.
There are reindeer-breeding, dairy stockbreeding, fur farming and fur bearing animals hunting. Suburban vegetable growing, and potatoes growing are present. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 71.7% potatoes and vegetables; and 28.3% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 13.3 potatoes, and 12.4 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 22.4 cattle including 10.5 cows; and 30.9 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 65.4 potatoes; 8.2 vegetables; 6.1 meat; and 31.6 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1073 km railways, and 1458 km main roads. The Ob, Irtysh, Konda, Severnaya Sosjva, Vakh rivers are used for navigation.

KIROVSKAYA OBLAST

Kirovskaya Oblast is situated in the east of European Russia. It was established on December 7, 1934 as Kirovsky Krai, since 1936 it is Kirovskaya Oblast. The area is 120,800 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,603,200 people, comprising: 90.4% Russians, 2.7% Tatars, 2.6% Maris, and others 4.3%. The density of population is 13.3 per km2, the urban population 70.2%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 465,600 center Kirov; 92,700 Kirovo-Chepetsk; 42,500 Vyatskie Polyany; 35,000 Slobodskoi; 30,900 Kotelnich; and 28,900 Omutninsk.
The oblast is situated in the east of East European Plain. In the eastern and northern parts there is Vyatsky and Severny Uvaly, in the north-east there is Verkhnekamskaya upland (with heights up to 357 m); along the Vyatka river there are lowlands. There are many karst forms of relief. The climate is temperate continental with long temperately cold winter and short but comparatively warm summer. Average temperatures are: in January from -14 to -160C, and in July 17-190C, precipitation is about 500 mm per year. The vegetative period is about 155-170 days. The main river is Vyatka, in the north-east the Kama river flows, in the west there is the Vetluga river head. The oblast is situated in southern taiga zone. The soils are mainly sod-podzolics, podzols illuvial-humic-ferrugenous (without subdivision), in some places greys forest. 53% of the territory are covered by forests, mainly spruce - fir-tree, as well as mixed (spruce, birch, pine-tree). The Nurgush reserve is located there.
Specialisation of agriculture is beef-dairy stockbreeding, and grain production. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 47.5% cereal crops; 0.2% industrial crops; 3.9% potatoes and vegetables; and 48.4% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.98 grain, 17.7 potatoes, and 34.1 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 607.6 cattle including 253.6 cows; and 265.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 721.5 grain; 733.0 potatoes; 358.1 vegetables; 93.7 meat; and 733.1 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1093 km railways, and 8784 km main roads. The Vyatka is used for navigation.

KOMI REPUBLIC

Komi Republic is situated in the extreme north-east of European Russia. It was established on August 22, 1921 as an autonomous oblast; on December 1936 it was reestablished as the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic - ASSR, since May 26, 1992 it is Komi Republic with an area of 415,900 km2. According to the 1989 census the population is 1,151,400 people, comprising: 23.3% Komi, 0.1% Komi-Permyaks, 57.7% Russians, 8.3% Ukrainians, others 10.6%. The density of population is 2.8 per km2, the urban population 74.6%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 230,500 capital Syktyvkar; 102,100 Ukhta; 92,900 Vorkuta; 60,900 Pechora.
The Republic is situated in the north-east of East European Plain. The relief is mainly plain (Pechora Lowland); from south-east to north-west the Timansky ridge extends, in the east there are the Urals ranges (the highest top is Narodnaya mountain - 1895 m). Karst relief forms are widespread. The climate is temperate continental with long, rather sever winter and short, comparatively warm summer. The average temperatures are: in January from -170C in the south-west to -200C in the north-east, and in July from 15 to 110C correspondingly, precipitation is from 700 to 1500 mm (in the mountains) per year. In the north and north-east there is permafrost. The vegetative season is from 150 days in the south to 90 days in the north-east. The main rivers are Pechora with Usa and Izhma.
The main part of the territory is situated in the taiga zone. The soils are mainly podzolics. Forests occupy 69% of the area, spruce, pine-tree prevail, cedar, fir-tree, larch occur. Northwards of latitude 660 North taiga is replaced by forest-tundra with spruce-birch light forest, oligotrophic moors and tundra with sedge, yernik and moss on soils of tundra type. The Yugydva National park, and the Pechoto-Ilychsky reserve are located there.
Agriculture is of a local character. Beef-dairy stockbreeding prevails, in suburbs there are pig-breeding and poultry raising. Horses, sheep are also bred; in northern areas there are reindeer-breeding, fur-bearing animals hunting. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 1.6% cereal crops; 18.7% potatoes and vegetables; and 79.7% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.87 grain, 15.6 potatoes, 19.5 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 91.3 cattle including 46.0 cows; and 29.8 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 0.7 grain; 284.7 potatoes; 39.6 vegetables; 15.9 meat; 110.1 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1708 km railways, and 4796 km main roads. The Pechora and Vychegda are used for navigation.

KOMI-PERMYATSKY AUTONOMOUS OKRUG

Komi-Permyatsky Autonomous Okrug is a subject of the Russian Federation within Permskaya oblast. It is situated in the foothills of the Urals, in the upper course of the Kama. It was established on February 26, 1925 with an area of 32,900 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 151,400 people, comprising: 60.2% Komi-Permyaks, 36.1% Russians, and others 3.7%. The density of population is 4.6 per km2, the urban population 30.6%. The administrative center is Kudymkar (34,400 people for 01.01.1999).
The major part of the territory is low areas, the relief is slightly hilly. In the north there are Severnye Uvaly, in the west - Verkhnekamskaya Upland (with heights up to 280 m). The climate is continental with sever snowy winter and comparatively short warm summer. The average temperatures are: in January from -15 to -170C, and in July 17-180C, precipitation is about 500 mm per year. In the north and north-east there is permafrost. The vegetative season is from 150 days in the south to 90 days in the north-east. The main river is Kama, in the north there are many sphagnum bogs. The okrug is situated on border of the middle and southern taiga zones. The soils are mainly podzolic and derno-podzolic. About 4/5 of the territory are occupied by spruce and spruce - fir-tree forests.
There are beef-dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding fur- bearing animals hunting. Rye, wheat, barley, oats, potatoes and vegetables (cabbage, carrot, beetroot) are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 40.5% cereal crops; 8.5% potatoes and vegetables; and 51.0% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.84 grain, 14.4 potatoes, 30.0 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 57.1 cattle including 31.3 cows; and 18.1 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 are: 38.8 grain; 128.8 potatoes; 36.5 vegetables; 7.3 meat; 804 milk.
The length of main roads is 1276 km. The Kama is used for navigation.

KORYAK AUTONOMOUS OKRUG

Koryak Autonomous Okrug is a subject of the Russian Federation within Kamchatskaya Oblast. It is situated in the north of Kamchatka peninsula and contiguous part of mainland and Karaginsky island. It is washed by the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering Sea. It was established on December 10, 1930 with an area of 301,500 km2. According to the 1989 census the population is 30,800 people, comprising: 16.4% Koryaks, 3.6% Chukchis, 3.0% Itelmens, 1.8% Evens, 62.0% Russians, 7.2% Ukrainians, others 6.0%. The density of population is 0.1 per km2, the urban population 24.3%. The administrative center of the okrug is settlement of urban type Palana (4,100 people for 01.01.1999).
The relief is mainly middle mountains. In the northern part of Kamchatka Sredinny range stretches, in the east of the okrug there is Koryak highland. Between them there are Penzhinskaya lowland and Parapolsky dale divided by Penzhinsky range. The climate is subarctic. Winter is cold, long, snowy, the average temperatures in January are from -24 to 260C. Summer is cool, short, the average temperatures in July are 10-140C. Precipitation is 300-700 mm per year. Permafrost is widespread. The vegetative season is 65-110 days. There are many short deep rivers, the largest one is the Penzhina.
The okrug is situated in the forest-tundra zone. In the mountain part mountain-tundra soils prevail, on low areas podzolic and peat bog soils are developed. Cedar elfin wood is widespread, on the western cost of Kamchatka there are birch (Betula ermanii) forests, in the upper course of the Penzhina there are larch light forests. The Koryak reserve is located there.
There are reindeer-breeding, fur farming, hunting, fishing. Fodder crops occupy almost 100% of the cultivated land. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 13.6 potatoes, and 1.7 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 0.9 cattle including 0.5 cows; and 0.2 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 0.7; and 1.1 milk.
The length of main roads is 57 km. The Penzhina is used for navigation.

KOSTROMSKAYA OBLAST

Kostromskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on August 13, 1944 with an area of 60,100 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 786,900 people, comprising: 96.3% Russians, and others 3.7%. The density of population is 13.1 per km2, the urban population 66.3%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 288,400 center Kostroma; 28,300 Bui; 28,000 Nerekhta; 26,100 Sharjya; 20,800 Manturovo; and 20,600 Galich.
The oblast is situated within the limits of moraine-hilly, in some places swamped plain. In the west there is Kostromskaya Lowland, in the central part there is an upland (up to 292 m), in the north-east there are Severnye Uvaly. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -120C, and in July 180C, precipitation is about 600 mm per year (the maximum is in summer). The vegetative season is about 110-140 days. The main river is Volga with tributaries Kostroma, Unzha, and Vetluga. The large lakes are Galichskoe, and Chukhlomskoe. The oblast is situated in the southern taiga zone. The soils are derno-podzolic on moraine and cover loam and loamy-sandy, sandy on water-glacial and ancient alluvial deposits. Forests (the main species is spruce) occupy about 60% of the territory.
There are dairy-beef and dairy stockbreeding (Kostroma breed), poultry raising, pig-breeding, and sheep-breeding. Rye, wheat, barley, oats, flax-fibre are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 37.2% cereal crops; 1.8% industrial crops; 4.9% potatoes and vegetables; and 56.1% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.88 grain, 17.3 potatoes, and 25.5 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 193.0 cattle 193.0 including 95.5 cows; and 69.1 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 116.6 grain; 272.3 potatoes; 130.6 vegetables; 34.1 meat; and 263.2 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 640 km railways, and 5366 km main roads. The Volga, the lower courses of the Kostroma, Unzha, and Nemda are used for navigation.

KRASNODARSKY KRAI

Krasnodarsky Krai is situated in the south of European Russia. It was established on September 13, 1937 with an area of 76,000 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 5,009,900 people, comprising: 86.7% Russians, 3.9% Ukrainians, 3.7% Armenians, and others 5.7%. The density of the population is 65.9 per km2, the urban population 53.8%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 642,200 center Krasnodar; 334,400 Sochi; 205,100 Novorossijsk; 164,700 Armavir; 85,100 Eisk; and 81,300 Kropotkin.
It is situated in the western part of the Great Caucasus (Pseashkho mountain, 3256 m) on Kubano-Priazovskaya Lowland; in the east there are outskirts of Stavropolskaya Upland. Karst is developed. The climate is from temperate continental to subtropical. The average temperatures are: in January from -40C on plain up to 50C on the coast, and in July 22-240C; in the mountains (at the height of 2200 m) -8 and 130C correspondingly. Precipitation is from 400 mm on plain up to 3200 mm in the mountains per year. The vegetative season on plain is 220-240 days. The main river is Kuban with Urup, Laba, Belaya, etc. left tributaries. In high mountains there are many karst lakes, on Taman peninsula and on the coast of the Sea of Azov there are lakes - brackish lagoons.
The krai is situated in the northern steppes zone. On plain of Western Predkavkazje there are especially fertile chernozems, in the mountains soils are sod calcareouses. 80% of steppes are ploughed up. In the mountains there are broad-leaved (oak, beech), in the region of Tuapse-Sochi mixed Colchis, as well as dark coniferous (Caucasian spruce and fir-tree) forests, higher there are subalpine and alpine meadows. The Sochi National Park, and the Caucasian reserve are located there.
It is the main agricultural region of Russia. There is cereal crops cultivation, vine-growing, fruit-growing. In the south there is tea cultivation. Dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding and poultry raising prevail. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 45.2% cereal crops; 22.2% industrial crops; 5.3% potatoes and vegetable-melons; and 27.3% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 3.04 grain, 6.3 potatoes, and 9.2 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 903.9 cattle including 397.7 cows; and 1357.7 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 3531.9 grain; 715.1 potatoes; 389.7 vegetables; 202.9 meat; and 1081.5 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 2174 km railways, and 10208 km main roads. The Kuban (from the Laba mouth) is used for navigation.

KRASNOYARSKY KRAI

Krasnoyarsky Krai is situated within Western Siberia, in the Enisei basin. In the north it is washed by the Kara and Laptev seas. It includes two autonomous okrugs (subjects of the Russian Federation): Taimyrsky (Dolgano-Nenetsky), and Evenkijsky. It was established on December 7, 1934 with an area of 2,339,700 km2. According to the 1989 census the population is 3,075,600 people, comprising: 87.0% Russians, 3.5% Ukrainians, and others 8.9%. The density of population is 1.3 per km2, the urban population 73.9%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 877,600 center Krasnoyarsk; 151,800 Norilsk; 122,800 Achinsk; 108,100 Kansk; 94,600 Zheleznogorsk; and 73,300 Minusinsk.
It extends from the Arctic Ocean to the Southern Siberia mountains. About 1/5 of the territory is situated over Arctic circle. In the relief there are: Taimyr peninsula with Byrranga Mountains with steep precipice towards North Siberian Plain; West Siberian Plain and Central Siberian Plateau; in the south there is the Vostochny Sayan (heights up to 2922 m), Zapadny Sayan, Kuznetsky Alatau and a number of intermontane basins (Minusinskaya, Chulymo-Eniseiskaya, etc).
The climate is extreme continental. Winter is cold, long, the average temperatures in January are from -360C in the north to -180C in the south. Summer is warm, the average temperatures in July are from 130C in the north (on sea-shores less than 100C) up to 200C in the south. Precipitation is from 200 mm in the north up to 1200 mm in the mountains of Southern Siberia per year. On the greater part of the territory permafrost is widespread. The vegetative season is 100-150 days. The main river is Enisei with tributaries Tuba. Mana, Kan, Angara, Bolshoi Pit, Stony and Nizhnyaya Tunduski, Kureika, Abakan, Sym, Turukhan, etc. The Chulym and Ketj (the Ob basin) also flow along the krai's territory. In the north there are the Khatanga, Pyasina, Taimyra. The large lakes are Taimyr, Pyasino, Lama, Glubokoe, Keta, and Khanyaiskoe.
Territory of the krai stretches from arctic deserts to typical steppes. In the north soils are peat swamp, southwards are replaced by permafrost taiga, gray forest, chernozemic and chestnut. In the north (till the Khatanga valley) moss-Lichens and bushes tundra prevails, southwards it is replaced by a narrow belt of forest tundra. On the major part of the krai there are larch taiga forests with addition of pine-tree, cedar, spruce, fir-tree southwards of Stony Tunguska. In intermontane basins in the south the vegetation is forest steppe and steppe. On the krai's territory there are the Shushensky Bor National Park, Bolshoi Arktichesky, Putoransky, Sayano-Shushensky, Stolby, Taimyrsky, Tungussky, Centralno-Sibirsky reserves.
There is beef-dairy stockbreeding, in the south there is fine-fleeced sheep-breeding, in the north there are reindeer-breeding and fur farming, fur-bearing animals hunting. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 57.2% cereal crops; 0.2% industrial crops; 4.5% potatoes and vegetables; and 38.1% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.58 grain, 12.4 potatoes, and 21.8 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 693.4 cattle including 324.1 cows; and 509.1 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1694.4 grain; 996.4 potatoes; 213.6 vegetables; 108.3 meat; and 809.7 milk.
The length of transport routes in1998 was: 2068 km railways, and 12210 km main roads. The Enisei with way out to Northern Sea Route is used for navigation.

KURGANSKAYA OBLAST

Kurganskaya Oblast is situated in the south of Western Siberia. It was established on February 6, 1943 with an area of 71,000 km2. According to the 1989 census the population is 1,102,100 people, comprising: 91.4% Russians, 22.1% Tatars, and others 6.5%. The density of population is 15.5 per km2, the urban population 54.8%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 365,400 center Kurgan; and 88,000 Shadrinsk.
The oblast is situated in the south of West Siberian Plain (heights up to 210 m). The surface is almost flat, slightly uplifted in the west and south-west, with numerous padings, gentle grivas and wide river valleys. The cimate is extreme continental. The average temperatures are: in January -180C, and in July 190C, precipitation is about 400 mm per year. The vegetative season is 160-165 days. The main rivers are Tobol and its tributaries Iset' (with Mias), Yurgamysh, Kurtamysh; there are about 2000 lakes. The oblast is situated mainly in the forest steppe zone. The soils are mainly meadow-chernozemics solonetzic and solonchakous, chernozems leached, and solonetzes meadowish. Meadow steppes with feather-grass and steppe meadow alternate with birch kolkis. Up to 40% of the territory is ploughed up.
Wheat, barley, oats, and corn are cultivated. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and poultry raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 67.4% cereal crops; 1.2% industrial crops; 1.8% potatoes and vegetables; and 29.6% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.91 grain, 11.9 potatoes, and 19.8 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 446.0 cattle including 207.4 cows; and 269.9 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 977.5 grain; 172.7 potatoes; 88.9 vegetables; 66.8 meat; and 458.3 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 748 km railways, and 6295 km main roads. The Tobol is used for navigation.

KURSKAYA OBLAST

Kurskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on June 13, 1934 with an area of 29,800 km2. According to the 1989 census the population is 1,323,500 people, comprising: 96.9% Russians, and others 3.1%. The density of population is 44.4 per km2, the urban population 59.9%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 441,200 center Kursk; 97,000 Zheleznogorsk; 48,300 Kurchatov; 23,900 Ljgov; and 20,900 Schigry.
The oblast is situated in Central Russian Upland (heights up to 275 m). The relief is erosional, greatly dissected by ravines and balkas. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -80C, and in July 190C, precipitation is about 500 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 170 days. There are rivers of the Dnieper basin - the Seim with tributaries Svapa, Tuskarm Psel; the Don basin - the upper course of the Oskol, Tim, Kshen` etc. The oblast is situated in the forest steppe zone. The soils are mainly chernozems. Forests (oak, ash-tree, elm, maple, birch) occupy up to 6% of the territory, arable lands - up to 76%. The Tsentralno-chernozemny reserve is located there.
Rye, wheat, barley, sugar-beet are cultivated. Fruit-growing is present. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, and poultry raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 59.8% cereal crops; 4.9% industrial crops; 7.0% potatoes and vegetables; and 28.3% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.5 grain, 10.9 potatoes, and 10.1 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 422.3 cattle including 217.0 cows; and 352.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1205.7 grain; 947.8 potatoes; 160.0 vegetables; 85.2 meat; and 466.8 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1067 km railways, and 5984 km main roads.

LENINGRADSKAYA OBLAST

Leningradskaya Oblast is situated in the north-west of European Russia. It is washed by Gulf of Finland of the Baltic Sea, Ladoga and Onega lakes. In the north-west it borders with Finland, in the west - with Estonia. It was established on August 1, 1927 with an area (together with Saint-Petersburg) of 85,900 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,673,700 people, comprising: 90.9% Russians, 3.0% Ukrainians, and others 6.1%. The density of population (including Saint-Petersburg) is 74.1 per km2, the urban population (without Saint-Petersburg) 66%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 82,300 Gatchina; 80,500 Vyborg; 68,000 Tikhvin; 62,400 Sosnovy Bor; 56,300 Kirishi.
On the greater part of the territory there are lowlands with traces of ice water activities. Between Gulf of Finland and Ladoga Lake there is elevated Karelian Isthmus, southwards Baltic-Ladoga Escarp stretches (the so-called Glint). Heights are up to 300 m. The climate is transitional from marine to continental. The average temperatures are: in January -70C, and in July 150C, precipitation is up to 850 mm per year. The vegetative season is 150-173 days. The large rivers are the Neva, Volkhov, Svirj, Luga, Vuoksa, Syasj. There are many lakes, especially on Karelian Isthmus. The oblast is situated in the middle and southern taiga zone. The soils are mainly podzols gleyic, poszolics, and peats high moor. Forests (spruce, pine-tree, birch, aspen) occupy about 50% of the territory. The Nizhne-Svirsky reserve is located there.
Agriculture is of a suburban type. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and poultry raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 7.3% cereal crops; 16.5% potatoes and vegetables; and 76.2% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.36 grain, 13.5 potatoes, and 20.8 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 251.1 cattle including 125.1 cows; and 130.5 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 39.4 grain; 587.9 potatoes; 219.9 vegetables; 59.3 meat; and 533.6 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 2810 km railways (including Saint-Petersburg), and 10375 km main roads. The Volga-Baltic Route, Belomorsko-Baltijsky and Saimensky canals, Ladoga and Onega lakes, the Neva, Cvirj and other rivers are used for navigation.

LIPETSKAYA OBLAST

Lipetskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on January 6, 1954 with an area of 24,100 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,244,900 people, comprising: 97.4% Russians, and others 2.6%. The density of population is 44.4 per km2, the urban population 63.1%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 519,200 center Lipetsk; 119,300 Elets; 48,200 Gryazi; 24,500 Dankov; and 22,000 Lebedyanj.
The oblast is situated in the upper Don basin within Central Russian Upland in the west (heights up to 262 m), and Oksko-Donskaya Plain in the east. The relief is erosional. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -100C, and in July 190C, precipitation is about 500 mm per year. The vegetative season is 180-190 days. The main rivers are the Don (with tributaries Krasivaya Mecha, Sosna), and Voronezh (with tributaries Matyra, Usmanj). The oblast is situated in the forest-steppe zone. The soils are typical chernozems in the south-east, leached chernozems, gray and dark-gray in the north-west, along valleys and balkas - meadow-chernozems. Oak-grooves and pine-tree-oak forests occupy 7% of the territory, arable land - up to 70%. The Voronezhsky and Galichya Gora reserves are located there.
Wheat, rye, barley, sugar-beet are cultivated; fruit-growing is present. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and meat-and-wool sheep-breeding. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 56.0% cereal crops; 7.1% industrial crops; 6.1% potatoes and vegetables; and 30.9% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.5 grain, 10.0 potatoes, and 13.4 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 333.2 cattle including 151.1 cows; and 270.5 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1151.9 grain; 577.8 potatoes; 155.8 vegetables; 51.7 meat; and 375.8 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 752 km railways, and 5086 km main roads.

MAGADANSKAYA OBLAST

Magadanskaya Oblast is situated in the extreme north-east of Russia. It is washed by the Sea of Okhotsk. It was established on December 3, 1953 with an area of 461,400 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 246,100 people, comprising: 75.2% Russians, 14.9% Ukrainians, and others 9.9%. The density of population is 0.5 per km2, the urban population 88.5%. The center is Magadan (121,700 people by 01.01.1999).
The major part of the oblast is mountainous. In the east there is Kolyma Range, in the central part there are offshoots of Chersky Range (heights up to 2586 m). The climate is extreme continental, sever. Winter is long (up to 8 months), summer is cool. The average temperatures are: in January from -190C up to -230C on the Sea of Okhotsk seashore, and -380C in the central part of the oblast: and in July 12 and 160C correspondingly. Precipitation is 300-700 mm per year. Everywhere (except the Sea of Okhotsk coast) permafrost is widespread. The vegetative season does not exceed 100 days. The dense river network belongs to the basins of the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. The largest river is Kolyma. The oblast is situated in the northern taiga zone. The soils are podburs dry-peaty, gleyzems shallow and deep peat tundra, and peats low moor. There are light taiga forests, the main species is larch. The Magadansky reserve is located there.
Reindeer-breeding is developed. Fruit-growing is present. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, fur farming, fur-bearing animals hunting, and poultry raising. Potatoes, cabbage, carrot, fodder crops are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 15.9% potatoes and vegetables; and 84.1% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.71 grain, 4.8 potatoes, and 6.7 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 8.5 cattle including 4.6 cows; and 2.0 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 16.2 potatoes; 4.5 vegetables; 0.8 meat; and 6.5 milk.
The length of main roads (the main is Kolymsky high road) is 2633 km.

MOSCOW

Moscow is the capital of the Russian Federation, the center of the Moskovskaya Oblast, and a subject of the Russian Federation. Its area (without Zelenograd and other settlements subordinate to Moscow mayoralty) is 994.0 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 8,538,200 people, including Moscow itself 8,297,900, and Zelenograd 207,300, comprising: 89.7% Russians, 2.9% Ukrainians, 2.0% Jews, and others 5.4%.
It is situated in European Russia, at a junction of Smolensko-Moskovskaya Upland, Moskvoretsko-Okskaya Plain, and Mescherskaya Lowland, in interstream of the Oka and Volga, on the Moskva river (the left tributary of the Oka). The major part of the city's territory is situated at the height of 120 m. The climate is temperate continental. Winter is temperately cold, long, with stable snow cover. The average temperatures in January are -10.20C. Summer is warm; the average temperatures in July are 18.10C, precipitation is 540-650 mm per year (maximum in July-August).


MOSKOVSKAYA OBLAST

Moskovskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on January 14, 1929 with an area of 47,000 km2. According to the 1989 census the population (without Moscow) amounts to 6,500,500 people, comprising: 93.5% Russians, 2.8% Ukrainians, and others 3.7%. The density of population is 140 per km2, the urban population 80%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 194,500 Podolsk; 164,800 Lyubertsy; 156,600 Mytischi; 151,300 Kolomna; 147,500 Elektrostal; 135,000 Serpukhov; 134,900 Khimki; 134,200 Korolev; and 133,200 Balashikha.
The relief is mainly plain, in the north and west there are uplands up to 285 m, in the east there is bogged lowland. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -100C, and in July 170C, precipitation is 450-650 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 170 days. The main navigable rivers are Oka, Moskva, as well as Moskva-Volga canal. The soils are sod-podzolics, and peats boggy. Forests occupy 50% of the territory, the main species are spruce, pine-tree, birch, in the south with oak and lime-tree.
Agriculture is of a suburban type. There is stockbreeding, the total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 567.5 cattle including 265.3 cows; and 247.3 pigs. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 are: 20.5% cereal crops (mainly in the south of the oblast); 0.2% industrial crops; 12.6% potatoes and vegetables (especially in the south-east of the oblast); and 66.7% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) are: 1.51 grain; 12.1 potatoes; and 18.1 vegetables. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 260.9 grain; 947.6 potatoes; 489.1 vegetables; 87.1 meat; and 910.4 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 2750 km railways (including Moscow), and 15220 km main roads.

MURMANSKAYA OBLAST

Murmanskaya Oblast is situated in the north-west of European Russia. It is washed by the Barents and the White Seas. In the west it borders with Norway and Finland. The oblast was established on May 26, 1938 with an area of 144,900 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,018,100 people, comprising: 82.9% Russians, 9.0% Ukrainians, and others 8.1%. The density of population is 7.0 per km2, the urban population 91.8%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 381,800 center Murmansk; 70,100 Apatity; 59,100 Monchegorsk; 56,100 Severomorsk; 46,000 Kandalaksha.
The oblast occupies the whole Kola Peninsula. In the western part there are mountain massifs of the Khibini (heights up to 1191 m), and Lovozerskie tundras; in the central part there is Keivy dividing ridge. In the southern part the climate is temperate marine, in the northern part it is subarctic, comparatively mild. The average temperatures are: in January from -80C in the north up to -130C in the central part, and in July 8 and 140C correspondingly. Precipitation is from 350 to 1000 mm (in mountain regions) per year. The vegetative season is 80-130 days. There are many cataract rivers; Imandra, Umbozero, Lovozero lakes. In the north there is moss-Lichens tundra, southwards there are forest-tundra and northern taiga (pine-tree, spruce, birch). The soils are podzolic and peat. The Kandalakshsky, Laplandsky, Pasvik reserves are located there.
There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, reindeer-breeding, poultry raising, and pig-breeding. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 18.5% potatoes and vegetables; and 81.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 12.4 potatoes, and 4.1 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 119 cattle including 5.3 cows; and 32.3 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in1998 was: 25.1 potatoes, 5.0 vegetables, 4.9 meat; and 22.6 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 891 km railways, and 2500 km main roads.

NENETS AUTONOMOUS OKRUG

Nenets Autonomous Okrug is a subject of the Russian Federation within Arkhangelskaya Oblast. It is situated in the extreme north-west of European Russia. The major part of the territory is situated over Northern polar circle. It is washed by the White, Barents and Kara seas. It includes Kolguev and Vaigach islands. The okrug was established on July 15, 1929 as Nenets National Okrug, since October 7, 1977 it is an autonomous okrug. Its area is 176,700 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 45,500 people, comprising: 11.9% Nenets, 65.8% Russians, 9.5% Komi, and others 12.8%. The density of population is 0.3 per km2, the urban population 60.8%. The administrative center is Naryan-Mar (18,500 by 01.01.1999).
The okrug is mainly a low plain. In the relief Timansky ridge and Pai-Khoi range (up to 467 m), swamped areas of Bolshezemelskaya and Malozemelskaya tundras can be singled out. The climate is subarctic with cool summer and long cold winter. The average temperatures are: in January from -120C in the south-west up to -220C in the north-east, and in July from 60C in the north and up to 180C in the south. Precipitation is about 350 mm per year. Permafrost is widespread. The vegetative season is 72-110 days. The main river is Pechora. The soils are mainly gleyzems, and peats. Over ? of the territory is situated in the tundra zone; in river valleys there is dense brushwood of willow. Southern and south-western parts of the okrug are situated mainly in the forest-tundra zones with spruce-birch light forests.
Dairy stockbreeding prevails. Potatoes and vegetables are cultivated. Fur farming is present. Arable lands are completely occupied by potatoes and vegetables (1998).The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 4.4 cattle including 2.0 cows; and 0.1 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1.3 potatoes; 0.1 vegetables; 2.0 meat; and 6.5 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was 127 km. The Pechora is used for navigation.

NIZHEGORODSKAYA OBLAST

Nizhegorodskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on January 14, 1929. Since 1929 it was Nizhegorodsky Krai, since 1932 Gorkovsky Krai, in 1936-1990 it was Gorkovskaya Oblast, since 1990 it is Nizhegorodskaya Oblast. Its area is 76,900 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 3,687,700 people, comprising: 94.7% Russians, and others 5.3%. The density of population is 48.0 per km2, the urban population 77.6%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 1,361,500 center Nizni Novgorod; 279,200 Dzerzhinsk; 110.8 Arzamas; 83.8 Sarov; 70.7 Pavlovo; 69.6 Kstovo; and 63,800 Bor.
The oblast is situated in the central part of East European Plain. The Volga divides the oblast into low Levoberezhje (Zavolzhje) and high Pravoberezhje - continuation of Privolzhskaya Upland (up to 247 m). Karst relief forms are developed. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January from -120C, and in July 190C. Precipitation is about 500 mm per year. The vegetative season is 165-175 days. The main rivers are Volga and its tributaries Oka, Kudjma, Sura, Uzola, Kerzhenets, Vetluga. The oblast is situated in the zone of south-taiga, mixed and broad-leaved forests. The soils are mainly sod-podzolics, and light-greys forest. Forests occupy about 40% of the territory: in Zavolzhje coniferous (spruce, pine-tree) and mixed, in Pravoberezhje - oak groves, and meadow steppes. On flat watersheds and in lowlands there are many bogs. The Kerzhensky reserve is located there.
Rye, oats, barley, wheat, buckwheat, sugar-beet, flax-fibre are cultivated. There are dairy-beef and dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and poultry raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 49.2% cereal crops, 0.4% industrial crops, 6.1% potatoes and vegetables; and 44.3% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.09 grain, 13.6 potatoes, and 17.8 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 663.9 cattle including 303.7 cows 303.7; and 325.8 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 811.1 grain; 932.2 potatoes; 251.0 vegetables; 88.1 meat; and 931.0 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1215 km railways, and 12372 km main roads. The Volga, Oka, Vetluga, and Sura are used for navigation.

NOVGORODSKAYA OBLAST

Novgorodskaya Oblast is situated in the north-east of European Russia. It was established on July 5, 1944 with an area of 55,300 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 733,900 people, comprising: 94.7% Russians, and others 5.3%. The density of population is 13.3 per km2, the urban population 70.6%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 230,600 center Veliky Novgorod; 61,600 Borovichi; and 39,800 Staraya Russa.
On the major part there is flat, swamped in some places Priilmenskaya Lowland, in the south-east there are hilly-moraine Valdai Hills (up to 299 m), in the north-east there is Tikhvinskaya hilly-moraine ridge. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -70C, and in July 140C. Precipitation is up to 800 mm per year. The vegetative season is 120-130 days. The large rivers are Volkhov, Msta, Lovatj, Shelonj. There are Iljmenj, Valdaiskoe, Velje, etc. lakes. The oblast is situated in the forest zone (southern taiga and mixed forests). The soils are sod-podzolics, and peats boggy. Forests (birch, aspen, alder-tree, spruce, pine-tree) occupy about 50% of the territory. The Valdai National Park is located there.
There are flax cultivation, dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and poultry raising. Wheat, rye, oats, barley are also cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 16.1% cereal crops, 1.5% industrial crops, 11.8% potatoes and vegetables; and 70.7% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.85 grain, 13.9 potatoes, and 16.9 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 116.9 cattle including 64.7 cows; and 59.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 32.2 grain; 224.8 potatoes; 110.3 vegetables; 20.7 meat; and 166.5 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1153 km railways, and 8513 km main roads. The Volkhov, Msta rivers and Iljmenj, and Valdaisky lakes are used for navigation.

NOVOSIBIRSKAYA OBLAST

Novosibirskaya Oblast is situated in the south-east of Western Siberia. It was established on September 28, 1937 with an area of 178,200 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 2,748,200 people, comprising: 92.0% Russians, 2.2% Germans, and others 5.8%. The density of population is 15.4 per km2, The urban population 73.7%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 1,402,100 center Novosibirsk; 86,300 Berdsk; 68,300 Iskitim; and 52,400 Kuibyshev.
The oblast is situated in the south-east of West Siberian Plain. It occupies the southern part of Vasjyuganskaya Lowland, in the east there are offshoots of Salairsky ridge (up to 498 m). In the central and southern part from north-east to south-west grivas up to 6-10 m are extending, between them there are bogs and lakes. The climate is extreme continental. The average temperatures are: in January from -160C in the south to -200C in the north, and in July 18-200C. Precipitation is 300-500 mm per year. The vegetative season is from 145 days in the north up to 158-163 days in the south. The major part of rivers belong to the Ob basin, many rivers fall into enclosed lakes. The Ob crosses the eastern part of the oblast, in the north-west the Irtysh tributaries - Om and Tara - flow. There are many lakes: Chany, Sartlan, Ubinskoe, Uryum, etc.
The oblast is situated in the zones of southern taiga, mixed forests and forest-steppe. The soils are mainly meadows solonetzic and solonchakous, solonetzes meadowish, and chernozems leached. Forests occupy 11% of the territory. In the north there is swamped taiga (fir-tree, spruce, pine-tree, cedar with addition of birch, aspen and sometimes larch), southwards there are hardwood forests and typical forest-steppe with birch kolki and pine forests. In the east there are areas of steppe with forbs, tipchak (Festuca sulcata), and feather grass.
There are highly developed grain cultivation; beef-dairy stockbreeding, and poultry raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 63.3% cereal crops, 0.7% industrial crops, 2.4% potatoes and vegetables; and 33.6% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 13.7 grain, 135 potatoes, and 287 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 862.0 cattle including 385.1 cows; and 400.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1615.4 grain; 449.0 potatoes; 232.4 vegetables; 134.8 meat; and 873.8 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1530 km railways, 9321 km main roads. The Ob is used for navigation.
OMSKAYA OBLAST

Omskaya Oblast is situated in the south of Western Siberia. It was established on December 7, 1934 with an area of 139,700 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 2,179,700 people, comprising: 80.3% Russians, 6.3% Germans, 4.9% Ukrainians, 3.5% Kazakhs, 2.3% Tatars, and others 2.7%. The density of population is 15.6 per km2, the urban population 67.2%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 1,157,600 center Omsk; 27,600 Isiljkulj; and 25,600 Kalachinsk.
The oblast is situated in the south of West Siberian Plain, in the middle course of the Irtysh. The relief is a gently sloping-rolling plain (heights up to 146 m); in the south grivas extend for a number of kilometers, in the northern part there are vast swamped areas. The climate is continental. Winter is long and cold, the average temperature in January is -200C; summer is warm, short, the average temperature in July is 200C. Precipitation is 300-400 mm per year. The vegetative season is 153-162 days. The main river is Irtysh with tributaries Ishim, Omj, Tara. There are many lakes mainly salt in the south and fresh-water in the north.
The oblast is situated from the south-taiga zone to the northern steppes zone. The soils are mainly meadows solonetzic and solonchakous, solonetzes meadowous, and chernozems ordinary glossic. Forests occupy 24% of the oblast territory. The main species are cedar, spruce, fur-tree, birch and aspen; mixed forests southwards are replaced by birch and aspen forests which gradually transit to kolki of the forest-steppe zone.
Wheat, rye, barley, flax and fodder crops, potatoes and vegetables are cultivated. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, fur- bearing animals hunting, fur farming. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 59.9% cereal crops, 0.5% industrial crops; 2.0% potatoes and vegetables; and 37.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.31 grain, 10.3 potatoes, and 14.3 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 773.2 cattle including 353.4 cows; and 508.9 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1418.4 grain; 421.8 potatoes; 138.0 vegetables; 147.1 meat; and 870.6 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 775 km railways, and 7511 km main roads. The Irtysh is used for navigation.

ORENBURGSKAYA OBLAST

Orenburgskaya Oblast is situated in the piedmont areas of the Southern Urals. It was established on December 7, 1934 (in 1938-1957 it was Chkalovskaya oblast) with an area of 124,000 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 2,225,500 people, comprising: 72.2% Russians, 7.3% Tatars, 5.1% Kazakhs, 4.7% Ukrainians, 3.2% Mordvionians, 2.5% Bashkirs, and others 5.0%. The density of population is 17.9 per km2, the urban population 63.9%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 524,200 center Orenburg; 275,100 Orsk; 109,700 Novotroitsk; 85,700 Buzuluk; and 54,700 Buguruslan.
A wide belt of the oblast stretches in the southern foothills of the Urals, offshoots of the Southern Urals and extreme south of Transurals. In the west there are ouvals of the Obschiy Syrt, in the central part there are the Guberlinskye Mountains (heights up to 667 m), in the east there are Zauralskaya Plain and western outskirts of Turgaiskoe Plateau. The climate is extreme continental, with little snow in winter and hot summer. The average temperatures are: in January from -14 to -180C, and in July 19-220C. Precipitation is 300-450 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 180 days. The main river is Ural with tributaries Sakmara, Orj, Bolshoi Kumak, and Ilek; in the north-west there are tributaries of the Volga basin: the Samara, Kama, and Belaya. In the south-east there are enclosed lakes.
The oblast is situated mainly in the steppe zone. The soils are mainly chernozems. In the north-west there are areas of forest-steppe with forbs, tipchak (Festuca sulcata) and feather-grass, birch and oaks groves, in the south and south-east - tipchak-feather-grass steppes. "Insular" pine forests (Buzuluksky pine forest) can be met. Along large river valleys there are recurrently flooded hardwood forests (urema). Forests occupy 4% of the territory. The Orenburgsky reserve is located there.
Wheat, rye, barley, buckwheat, millet, pea, sunflower, potatoes and vegetables are cultivated. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, goat-breeding, poultry raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 71.8% cereal crops, 5.7% industrial crops, 1.2% potatoes and vegetables; and 21.4% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.43 grain, 6.5 potatoes, and 15.7 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 839.6 cattle including 385.3 cows; and 304.2 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 683.4 grain; 200.4 potatoes; 183.8 vegetables; 85.4 meat; 769.7 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1651 km railways, and 12758 km main roads.

ORLOVSKAYA OBLAST

Orlovskaya Oblast is situated in the central area of European Russia. It was established on September 27, 1937 with an area of 24,700 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 902,600 people, comprising: 97.0% Russians 97.0, and others 3.0%. The density of population is 36.5 per km2, the urban population 62.5%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 342,800 center Orel; 53,700 Livny; 51,000 Mtsensk.
The oblast is situated within the boundaries of Central Russian Plain (height up to 282 m). The relief is erosional. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January from -90C, and in July 180C. Precipitation is about 500 mm per year with the maximum in summer. The vegetative season is 190-200 days. The main river is Oka with tributaries Kroma, Tson, Orlik, Rybnitsa, etc. There are many ponds. The oblast is situated in the broad-leaved forests and forest-steppe zones. The soils are mainly chernozems. The Orlovskoe Polesje National Park is located there.
Rye, wheat, oats, barley, buckwheat, millet, potatoes and vegetables; industrial crops; sugar-beet, and hemp are cultivated. There are fruit-growing; dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, and poultry raising. Pure-strain horse-breeding (Orlov trotters) is present. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 63.3% cereal crops, 2.3% industrial crops, 4.3% potatoes and vegetables; and 30.1% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.43 grain, 14.1 potatoes, and 15.2 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 268.3 cattle including 123.3 cows; and 256.3 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1104.5 grain; 622.1 potatoes; 92.0 vegetables; 56.1 meat; and 325.3 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 585 km railways, and 3869 km main roads.

PENZENSKAYA OBLAST

Penzenskaya Oblast is situated in the south-east of European Russia. It was established on February 4, 1939 with an area of 43,200 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,541,800 people, comprising: 86.2% Russians, 5.7% Mordvinians, 5.4% Tatars 5.4, and others 2.7%. The density of population is 35.7 per km2, the urban population 63.9%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 528,700 center Penza; 99,100 Kuznetsk; 63,900 Zarechny; 44,700 Kamenka; 42,400 Serdobsk.
The greater part of the oblast is occupied by Privolzhskaya Upland (up to 331 m high), dissected by deep valleys into separate uplands and ridges with dense ravine-balka network. In the west there is Oksko-Donskaya Lowland. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -120C, and in July 190C. Precipitation is about 600 mm per year. The vegetative season is 126-132 days. The large rivers are Sura, Moksha, Khoper, and Vorona. It is situated in the forest-steppe zone, in the east there is a broad-leaved forests zone. Chernozems occupy about 65% of the area, under forests - gray podzolized and gray forest soils, in river valleys - meadow-chernozemic and alluvial soils. Forests (the main species are oak, birch, and pine-tree) and bushes occupy about 23%, arable land - 75-77%. The Privolzhskaya Lesostep reserve is located there.
Wheat, rye, buckwheat, millet, barley, sugar-beet, hemp; potatoes, and vegetables are cultivated. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, and poultry raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 63.1% cereal crops, 5.1% industrial crops, 3.9% potatoes and vegetables; and 27.9% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.76 grain, 10.6 potatoes, and 7.4 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 369.6 cattle including 198.7 cows; and 216.7 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 762.0 grain; 343.1 potatoes; 151.2 vegetables; 53.4 meat; and 480.9 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 829 km railways, and 5804 km main roads.

PERMSKAYA OBLAST

Permskaya Oblast is situated on the western slopes of the Northern and Central Urals, and contiguous in the west hilly plains. It was established on October 3, 1938 with an area of 160,600 km2 . According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 2,669,700 people, comprising: 83.8% Russians, 4.9% Tatars, 4.0% Komi-Permyaks, and others 7.3%. The density of population is 18.5 per km2, the urban population 76.6%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 1,018,100 center Perm; 183,100 Berezniki; 106,400 Solikamsk; 89,900 Chaikovski; 75,900 Kungur; 75,800 Lysjva; 58,600 Krasnokamsk; and 54,400 Chusovoi.
In the east there are the Urals ranges (up to 1469 m), piedmont plateaus, residual ridges; in the west there is Verkhnekamskaya Upland, in the north-west the Severnye Uvaly are situated. In the central part there is a low plain with the Kama valley. In the Urals piedmonts karst is developed. The climate is temperate continental. Winter is snowy long, summer is temperate warm. The average temperatures are: in January from -15 to -180C, and in July 16-180C. Precipitation is from 450 mm in the south-west up to 800 mm in the north-east per year. The vegetative season is 145-165 days. The main river is Kama with tributaries Veslyana, Vishera, Yajvya, Kosjva, Chusovaya, Kosa, Injva, and Obva; there are the Kamskoe and Votkinskoe reservoirs.
The oblast is situated in the central and southern taiga as well as mixed forests zones. Soils are mainly sod-podzolics, podzolics, and peats. Spruce forests are widespread, in the south there are broad-leaved - spruce forests with addition of Siberian fir-tree. In the south-east there is a part of Kungurskaya forest-steppe. Forests occupy over 60% of the territory. The Basegi and Visherski reserves are located there.
There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, poultry raising; goat-breeding, and sheep-breeding. Rye, wheat, barley and oats as well as vegetables are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 46.0% cereal crops, 5.5% potatoes and vegetables; and 42.4% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.04 grain, 16.5 potatoes, and 31.2 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 481.5 cattle including 231.5 cows; and 279.8 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 486.2 grain; 904.7 potatoes; 351.2 vegetables; 97.2 meat; 680.6 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1474 km railways, and 9251 km main roads. The Kama is used for navigation.

PRIMORSKY KRAI

Primorsky Krai is situated in the far south-east of Russia, in Primorie. It is washed by the Sea of Japan. It was established on October 20, 1938 with an area of 165.900 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amount to 2,194,200 people comprising: 86,9% Russians, 8,2% Ukrainians, and others 4,9%. The density of population is 13,2 per km2, the urban population 77,7%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are 610,300 center Vladivostok, 159,600 Nakhodka, 157,600 Ussuriysk, 67,300 Arseniev, 66,900 Artem.
Central and eastern part of the territory is occupied by Sikhote-Alyn mountain ranges (with heights up to 1855 m), in the West there are Ussuriyskaya and Prikhanskaya lowlands. The climate is temperate monsoon. The average temperatures are: in January from -120 C on the sea coast to -270 C in the continental areas. Summer is warm and humid. The average temperature of July is 14-210 C. Precipitation is 600-900 mm per year. At the end of summer and in autumn typhoon are not rare. The vegetative season is 120-200 days. The major part of the territory is drained by Ussury river and its tributaries. Many rivers inflow directly into the Sea of Japan. In the south-west large lake Khanka is located.
Krai is located in the broad-leaved zone. Soils are mainly brown-taiga, and on the plains there are podzolic and alluvial-gley soil. In the North there are forests from fir-tree [Abies], spruce [Picea ajanesis] and larch [Larix Daurica], in the South there are forest of Mandjur type with lianas. There are many swamps on the Prikhanskaya lowland. The forests (the main species are spruce [Picea ajanensis], Cedar Korean, oak [Quercus mongolica], chestnut) occupy 90% of the territory. The Dalnevostochniy morskoy, Kedrovaya Pad, Lazovsky, Sikhote-Alinsky, Ussuriysky, Khansky reserves are located there.
Cereals crops (rice, buckwheat, oats, wheat) and fodder crops, soy-beans, oats, barley, wheat, potatoes are cultivated. There are vegetable growing and gardening. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, poutry raising, fur farming (mink), reindeer-breeding (antlers of young Siberian stag). The structure of cultivated land in 1998 was: 38.9% cereal crops, 18.5% technical crops, 13.8% potatoes and vegetables, 28.8% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha) in 1995 was: grains 0.87, potatoes 8.9, and vegetables 8.1. Total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 128.1 cattle including 70.2 cows; 76.4 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 180.1 grains, 536.9 potatoes, 126.0 vegetables, 19.6 meat, and 149.1 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1566 km railways, 6985 km main roads.

PSKOVSKAYA OBLAST

Pskovskaya Oblast is situated in the north-west of European Russia. It was established on August 23, 1944 with an area of 55,300 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 811,100 people, comprising: 94.3% Russians, and others 5.7%. The density of population is 14.7 per km2, the urban population 64.9%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 202,600 center Pskov; 116,700 Velikie Luki; 29,400 Ostrov.
The greater part of the oblast is a plain; in the north-west and south-east there are uplands (heights up to 338 m). The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -70C, and in July 170C. Precipitation is up to 650 mm per year. The vegetative season is 120-130 days. The largest river is Velikaya; the large lakes are Pskov, Chudskoye Ozero, there are more than 1500 small lakes. The oblast is situated in the southern taiga and mixed forests zones. The soils are mainly sod-podzolic, sod-gleys, and peats. Forests (the main species are spruce, pine-tree, birch, and aspen) occupy about 25% of the territory, arable land - about 65%. The Sebezhski National Park, Izborski Natural-Architectural Reserve, Pushkinski Reserve are located there.
There are flax (flax-fibre), potatoes cultivation, dairy stockbreeding, and pig-breeding. Rye, and fodder crops are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 21.3% cereal crops, 1.6% industrial crops; 7.6% potatoes and vegetables; and 69.6% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.88 grain, 13.3 potatoes, and 18.9 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 226.3 cattle including 137.2 cows; and 93.1 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 97.4 grain; 246.2 potatoes; 102.6 vegetables; 28.3 meat; and 347.7 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1092 km railways, and 9925 km main roads. Chudskoe Ozero and Lake Pskov, as well as the lower course of the Velikaya river are used for navigation.

REPUBLIC OF ALTAI

Republic of Altai is situated in the Altai mountains; in the south it borders with Kazakhstan, China and Mongolia. It was established in 1922 as Oirotskaya autonomous oblast, in 1948 it was renamed Gorno-Altaiskaya Oblast, since 1991 it was Gorno-Altaiskaya Republic, since 1992 it is Reopublic of Altai with an area of 92,600 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 203,100 people, comprising: 31.0% Altaians, 60.4% Russians, 5.6%Kazakhs, and others 3.0%. The density of population is 2.2 per km, the urban population 26.5%. The capital is Gorno-Altaisk with the population of 50,600 people (01.01.1999).
High Katunsky, Kuraisky, Severny, and Yuzhny Chuisky mountain ridges, etc. (the highest top of Altai is Belukha mountain, 4506 m) are divided by deeply incised valleys or wide basins, which are called "steppes" there. The climate is extreme continental. The average temperatures are: in January from -12 to -32oC, and in July from 9 to 18oC. Precipitation is from 100 mm in intermontane basins up to 1000 mm per year in the north-west in the mountains. Rivers relate to the Katun and Biya rivers basins; the latter river is used for timber rafting. There is Teletskoe lake. The soils are mainly brownzems acid, and mountain forest chernozemic. Forests occupy 25% of the territory, Siberian larch, cedar, fir-tree, spruce prevail, in the lower mountain belt there are pine-tree, birch, aspen, and poplar. In the region of Teletskoe lake there is the Altai reserve.
The main branch of economy is stockbreeding (sheep, goats, cattle). There is reindeer-breeding (for getting antles of young Siberian stag) - yaks, Siberian deers, spotted deers. In Chuiskaya basin there is camel-breeding. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 16.8% cereal crops; 0.1% industrial crops; 5.2% potatoes and vegetables; and 77.9% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.63 grain, 9.8 potatoes, and 9.3 vegetables. There is beef and dairy stockbreeding. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 113.6 cattle including 53.0 cows, and 10.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 9.6 grain; 55.5 potatoes; 15.7 vegetables; 12.0 meat; and 56.6milk.
The length of main roads in 1998 was 2636 km.

REPUBLIC OF BASHKORTOSTAN

Republic of Bashkortostan is situated in Preduralye and on slopes of the Southern Urals. It was established on March 23, 1919 as Bashkir Autonomous SSR, since 1992 it is Republic of Bashkortostan with an area of 143,600 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 4,110,300 people, comprising: 21.9% Bashkirs, 38.3% Russians, 28.4% Tatars, 3.0% Chuvashs, 2.7% Maris, and others 4.7%. The density of popullation is 28.6 per km2, the urban population 64.6%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 1,086,600 capital Ufa, 263,900 Sterlitamak, 157,600 Salavat, 117,800 Neftekamsk, 111,500 Oktyabrsky, 73,500 Beloretsk, 71,000 Ishimbai, 69,800 Kumertau, and 57,700 Sibai.
In Preduralye in the west of the oblast there is an upland, in the south-west there are offshoots of the Obschiy Syrt, in the north-east there is Ufimskoe Plateau. Along the Belaya river there is a vast depression. In the east of the oblast there are ranges of the Southern Urals (up to 1640 m, Yamantau mountain) with a narrow area of Transurals; in the south there is Zalairskoe Plateau. Karst is widespread. The climate is continental. The average temperatures are: in January from -14 to -170C, and in July 16-200C, precipitation is 300-600 mm per year. The vegetative season is 120-135 days. The main river is Belaya. The soils are mostly grey forest, and chernozems. In Preduralye there are mixed forests (in the north), forest-steppe with birch and oak forests, forb-feather-grass steppe. Steppe and forest-steppe partially occupy the Urals slopes, higher there are belts of oak and lime-tree forests (in the western foothills), pine-larch and birch forests, dark coniferous taiga, on some tops there are golets. In Transurals steppe and birch forest-steppe prevail. Forests occupy about 40% of the territory. The Bashkiria national part, Bashkirsky, and Shulgan-Tash reserves are located there.
Wheat, rye, oats, barley, sugar-beet, sunflower are cultivated. There are beef and dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, meat and wool sheep-breeding, and poultry raising. Horse-breeding and bee-keeping are traditionally developed. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 54.3% cereal crops; 4.0% industrial crops; 3.2% potatoes and vegetables; and 38.6% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.23 grain, 9.2 potatoes, and 10.4 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 1807.2 cattle including 775.0 cows; and 662.3 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1425.4 grain; 902.0 potatoes; 243.8 vegetables; 266.0 meat; and 1634.0 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1475 km railways, and 21517 km main roads. The Belaya and the Ufa rivers are used for navigation.

REPUBLIC OF BURYATIA

Republic of Buryatia is situated in the southern part of Eastern Siberia, in Transbaikal region; it borders with Mongolia. It was established on May 30, 1923 as Buryat-Mongolian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, since 1958 it was Buryat Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, since 1992 it is Republic of Buryatia with an area of 351,300 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,038,200 people, comprising: 24.0% Buryats, 70.0% Russians, 2.2% Ukrainians, and others 3.8%. The density of population is 3.0 per km2, the urban population 59.8%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 370,700 capital Ulan-Ude, 30,500 Gusinoozersk, and 27,700 Severobaikalsk.
The relief is mainly mountainous. The territory enbraces the Eastern Sayan (heights up to 4391 m, Munku-Sardyk mountain), Baukal mountain area with Khamar-Daban, Ulan-Burgasy, Barguzinskiy, Baikalsky etc. ranges, Selenginskoe middle mountain land and Vitimskoe tableland. Within these mountain systems there are vast intermontane basins. The climate is extreme continental. Winter is long, frosty, windless, with little snow; summer is short, warm. The average temperatures are: in January -240C, and in July 170C. Precipitation is about 300 mm per year. The vegetative season is 90-155 days. Permafrost is widespread. Rivers belong to the Enisei and the Lena basins. The Selenga, Barguzin and Verkhnyaya Angara rivers fall into Baikal Lake. In the western part of the republic the Irkut, Kitoi, Oka as well as a large tributary of the Lena Vitim flow.
The republic is situated in the taiga, forest-steppe and steppe zones. The soils of podzolic type prevail, in forest-steppe and steppe regions - dark gray forest as well as varieties of chestnut and chernozemic soils. Forests occupy 65.5% of the territory: larch, pine-tree, cedar. The Zabaikalsky, and Tuvinsky national parks, Baikalsy, Barguzinsky, and Dzherginsky reserves are located there.
There are beef and dairy stockbreading, sheep-breeding, pig-breeding, and poultry raising, as well as fur bearing animals hunting, and fur farming. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 71.4% cereal crops; 0.1% industrial crops; 5.6% potatoes and vegetables; and 22.8% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.8 grain, 9.8 potatoes, and 13.7 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 are: 326.7 cattle including 143.6 cows; and 121.0 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 326.6 grain; 159.4 potatoes; 43.3 vegetables, 42.8 meat, and 160.0 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1199 km railways, and 6138 km main roads. Baikal Lake, and the Selenga and the Barguzin rivers are used for navigation.

REPUBLIC OF DAGHESTAN

Republic of Daghestan is situated in the south of European Russia, in the east of the Northern Caucasus. It is washed by the Caspian Sea; it borders with Georgia and Azerbaijan. On January 20, 1921 Daghestan Autonomus Soviet Socialist Republic was established within RSFSR, since 1991 it is Republic of Daghestan with an area of 50,300 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 2,120,100 people, comprising: 27.5% Avars, 15.6% Dargins, 12.9% Kumyks, 11.3% Lezghins, 5.1% Laks, 4.3% Tabasarans, 3.5% other Daghestan peoples, 9.2% Russians, and others 10.6%. The density of population is 42.1 per km2, the urban population 41.4%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 332,200 capital Makhachkala, 91,300 Derbent, 84,600 Khasavyurt, 68,200 Kaspiysk, and 57,100 Buynaksk.
The republic stretches along the Caspian Sea coast. The following components are singled out in the relief: Tersko-Kumskaya lowland composed of alluvial deposits, area of Vnutrenny Daghestan (Gunib plateau, etc.), high mountain ranges of the Great Caucasus (Bazardyuzyu mountain, 4466 m). The climate on plains is dry, continental. Winter is with little snow, summer is hot and dry. The average temperatures are: in January from -50C in the north up to 10C on the Caspian Plain (near the Samur delta), and in July 250C. Precipitation is 200-400 mm per year. In the peidmont area the climate is more temperate and humid. The average temperatures are: in January -2.5 0C, and in July 230C. Precipitation is 350-450 mm per year. In mountains the climate is temperate cool, in basins it is warmer. The average temperatures are: in January from -4 to -70C, and in July 15-200C. Precipitation is 600-800 mm per year. The vegetative season is 200-240 days. The large rivers are Terek, Sulak, and Samur.
Territory of Daghestan is situated in the semi-desert zone. On foothills and in the mountains altitudinal zonality is well manifested. On plains soils are light chestnut, brown loamy-sandy considerably saline, meadow-solonchak, in river flood-plains - alluvial; the vegetation is mainly sagebrush-solyanki (Salsola) and sagebrush-ephemerals-grass. On foothills there are chestnut and mountain forest soils. At the heights of 500-1600 m there are broad-leaved forests (mainly beech and hornbeam), higher there are bushes, mountain steppes, and meadows. Forests and bushes occupy 9% of the territory. The Daghestan reserve is located there.
There are vegetable-growing, fruit-growing, and vine-growing. On the plain irrigated agriculture is developed. There is sheep-breeding including distant-pastures one; beef-dairy stockbreeding. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 59.7% cereal crops; 0.8% industrial crops; 13.0% potatoes and vegetables; and 26.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.28 grain, 1.12 potatoes, 11.3 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 606.3 cattle including 296.2 cows; and 7.3 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 184.0 grain; 102.9 potatoes; 256.1 vegetables; 60.1 meat; and 264.3 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 516 km railways, and 7060 km main roads.

REPUBLIC OF INGUSHETIA

Republic of Ingushetia is situated in the south of European Russia, in Caucasia. Since 1921 it was within the Gorskaya Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic - ASSR. In 1924 Ingush Autonomous Oblast (AO) was established within RSFSR, in 1934 it was united with Chechen AO into Chechen-Ingush AO which in 1936 was transformed into ASSR. In 1944 it was abolished. In December 1992 Republic of Ingushetia was established. The area (together with Chechen Republic, the border between them is not demarcated) is 19,300 km2, According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 317,000 people, comprising: 74.5% Ingushs, 10.35% Chechens, 13.2% Russians, and others 2.0%. The density of population is 56.9 per km2, the urban population 41.3%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 77,000 capital Nazran, 35,900 Malgobek, and 18,800 Karabulak.
The republic is situated in the central part of the northern slope of the Great Caucasus (heights up to 2251 m) and the adjoining Chechen Plain. The climate is continental. The average temperatures are: in January from -3 to -100C, and in July 21-230C, precipitation is up to 1200 mm per year. The vegetative season (on the plain) is 190 days. The main river is Sunzha. The soils on the plain are mainly meadow, in river valleys alluvial and meadow-swamp, in the mountains mountain-forest and mountain meadow. The vegetation is steppe and forest-steppe, in the mountains up to 2200 m there are broad-leaved forests, higher there are subalpine and alpine meadows.
Corn, wheat, barley, oats, sugar beet, sunflower, potatoes are cultivated. There are cattle-breeding, and fine-fleeced sheep-breeding. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 54.7% cereal crops; 9.1% industrial crops; 8.8% potatoes and vegetables; and 27.5% fodder crops. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 38.2 cattle including 21.0 cows. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 19.2 grain; 21.0 potatoes; 4.8 vegetables; 2.2 meat; and 43.7 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 39 km railways, and 752 km main roads.

REPUBLIC OF KALMYKIA

Republic of Kalmykia is situated in the south of European Russia, in the south-east it is washed by the Caspian Sea. It was established on November 4, 1920 as an autonomous oblast, on October 20, 1935 it was transformed into the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic - ASSR, in 1943 it was abolished, in 1957 it was re-established as an autonomous oblast, since July 29, 1958 it was Kalmytskaya ASSR, since 1990 it is Republic of Kalmykia. Its area is 76,100 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 316,100 people, comprising: 45.4% Kalmyks, 37.7% Russians, 4.0% Dargins, 2.6% Chechens, 1.9% Kazakhs, and others 8.4%. The density of population is 4.2 per km2, the urban population 37.5%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 101,600 capital Elista, 15,300 Lagan, and 10,500 Gorodovikovsk.
The republic occupies the western part of Caspian Plain, Ergeni Upland and Kumo-Manychskaya depression. The climate is extreme continental. The average temperatures are: in January from -5 to -80C, and in July 23-260C, precipitation is from 170 mm in the east to 400 mm in the west per year. The vegetative season is 140-200 days. Surface waters are scanty, shallow salt lakes and vast half drying up in summer brackish lagoons are widespread. The soils are mainly browns solonetzic, solonetzes, and sands. In the northern areas tipchak (Festuca sulcata)-heather-grass and sagebrush-tipchak steppes are developed, in the south-eastern areas there is semi-desert and sagebrush desert. In depressions there are reeds, couch-grass, meadow forbs. In Ergenei balkas there are brushwoods of willow, elm, pine-tree. The Chernye Zemli reserve is located there.
There are fine-fleeced sheep-breeding and beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding and horse-breeding. Fodder and cereal (wheat) crops, vegetables, melons are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 73.9% cereal crops; 7.0% industrial crops; 0.9% potatoes and vegetable - melon and gourd; and 18.1% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.82 grain, 3.2 potatoes, and 4.7 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 121.1 cattle including 57.0 cows; and 55.1 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 207.1 grain; 3.9 potatoes, 8.2 vegetables; 15.8 meat; and 40.7 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 154 km railways, and 2216 km main roads.

REPUBLIC OF KARELIA

Republic of Karelia is situated in the north-west of European Russia. It borders with Finland. It is washed by the Baltic Sea. On July 25, 1923 Karelian the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR) was established (from March 31, 1940 till July 16, 1956 Karelian-Finnish SSR); in 1956-91 it was Karelian ASSR, since 1991 it is Republic of Karelia. The area is 172,400 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 771,100 people, comprising: 10.0% Karels, 73.6% Russians, 7.0% Byelorussians, and others 9.4%. The density of the population is 4.5 per km2, the urban population 73.8%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 282,600 capital Petrozavodsk, 36,600 Kondopoga, 34,500 Segezha, 32,400 Kostomuksha, and 120,500 Sortavala.
The republic is situated within the eastern part of Baltic Shield. The relief is hilly plain with strongly pronounced traces of ancient glaciation. In the west and north-west there is Manselkya range with height of up to 576 m and West Karelian upland. The climate is transitional from marine to continental. The average temperatures are: in February from -9 up to -130C, and in July 14-160C, precipitation is about 500 mm per year on plain and up to 2500 mm in the mountains. The vegetative season is from 60 days in the north up to 100 days in the south. There are more than 40 thousand lakes, the largest ones are Ladozhskoe, Onezhskoe, and Vygozero. The republic is situated in the zones of northern and middle taiga. The soils are mainly podzols, and peats. Forests occupy more than half of the territory, the main species are pine-tree, spruce, Karelian birch, alder-tree, aspen. There are many swamps. The Vodlozersky, and Paanayarvi national parks, Kandalakshsky, Kivach and Kostomushsky reserves are located there.
There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and poultry-raising. Fodder crops are cultivated. There is fur farming. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 3.5% cereal crops; 15.2% potatoes and vegetables; and 81.3% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 14.4 potatoes, and 14.6 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 56.9 cattle including 28.5 cows; and 9.4 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1.7 grain; 100.4 potatoes; 18.5 vegetables; 7.1 meat; and 82.1 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 2101 km railways, and 6452 km main roads. Onezhskoe and Ladozhskoe lakes, Belomosko-Baltijsky canal, the White Sea are used for navigation.

REPUBLIC OF KHAKASSIA

Republic of Khakassia is situated in the south of Eastern Siberia. On October 20, 1930 Khakass Autonomous Oblast was established, since 1922 it is Republic of Khakassia with an area of 61,900 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 581,400 people, comprising: 11.1% Khakassians, 79.5% Russians, 2.3% Ukrainians, 2.0% Germans, and others 6.1%. The density of population is 9.4 per km2, the urban population 71.5%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 167,900 capital Abakan, 79,300 Chernogorsk, and 55,800 Sayanogorsk.
Mountain areas of the republic are situated in the eastern slopes of the Kuznetsky Alatau and Abakansky range, as well as on the northern slope of the Western Sayan (heights up to 2930 m), in Minusinskaya and Chulymo-Eniseiskaya basins there are plain territories. Plain areas adjoin wide river valleys and are called steppes. The climate is extreme continental. Winter is cold with little snow (in basins), the average temperatures in January are from -15 to -210C. Summer in basins is hot (the average temperature in July is 17-200C), in piedmont and mountains is cooler. Precipitation is from 300 mm per year in basins up to 700 mm in the mountains. The vegetative season is up to 150 days (in valleys). Large rivers are Enisei, its left tributary Abakan, as well as Tom, Bely and Cherny Iyus (the Ob basin). There are many lakes with fresh and salt water.
The republic is situated in the steppe and forest-steppe zones; altitudinal zonality of landscapes is well pronounced. In the mountains derno-podzolic as well as mountain-taiga podzolic and mountain-tundra soils; in intermontane basins and partially in piedmont - different types of chernozems. In the lowest part of basins dry derno-cereals steppes are distributed, in the outskirts there are forb steppes and forest-steppe (combination of steppes with larch, birch and pine copses). Mountain-taiga forests grow up till 1200 m in the north, 1600 m and higher in the south. On dry slopes of the Kuznetsky Alatau there is light coniferous taiga of larch and pine-tree, on slopes of Abakansky Rabge and Western Sayan there are dark coniferous forests with predominance of fir-tree and cedar. The Maly Abakan, and Chazy reserves are located there.
Cereal crops, mainly wheat are cultivated. There are beef-dairy stockbreeding and sheep-breeding. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 54.5% cereal crops, 0.1% industrial crops; 5.3% potatoes and vegetables; and 40.1% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.98 grain, 6.4 potatoes, and 24.0 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 141.4 cattle including 65.6 cows; and 82.9 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 158.1 grain; 148.6 potatoes; 84.3 vegetables; 24.3 meat; and 134.1 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 642 km railways, and 2399 km main roads. The Enisei and Abakan are used for navigation.

REPUBLIC OF MARI EL

Republic of Mari El is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on November 4, 1920 as Mari Autonomous Oblast; on December 5, 1936 it was transformed into the Mari Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic - ASSR. Since 1990 it is Republic of Mari El with an area of 23,200 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 761,200 people, comprising: 43.3% Maris, 47.5% Russians, 5.9% Tatars, and others 3.3%. The density of population is 32.8 per km2, the urban population 62.1%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 249,800 capital Ioshkar-Ola; 61,800 Volzhsk; and 24,500 Kozmodemyansk.
The republic is situated in the east of East European Plain, in the middle course of the Volga. In the east there is Vyatsky Ouval (heights up to 275 m), karst forms of relief occur; in the west there is swamped Mari Lowland. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -130C, and in July 190C, precipitation is 450-500 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 170 days. The main river is Volga with tributaries Vetluga, Bolshaya and Malaya Kokshaga, Iletj; in the north-east there are tributaries of the Vyatka; Cheboksarskoe reservoir. The Repuclic is situated in the subtaiga zone. The soils are mainly sod-podzolic, and grey forest. Mixed forests (pine-tree, fir-tree, spruce, birch) occupy more than half of the territory (mainly in the west and in the central areas). In river valleys there are oak - lime-tree forests. The Mari Chobra National Park, and Bolshaya Kokshaga reserve are located there.
There are dairy-beef and dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, and poultry raising. Barley, oats, rye, wheat, fodder crops, flax-fibre, hop, vegetables, potatoes are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 52.3% cereal crops; 1.0% industrial crops; 7.7% potatoes and vegetables; and 39.0% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.13 grain, 17.6 potatoes, and 27.4 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 222.3 cattle including 106.7 cows; and 178.3 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 287.1 grain; 581.7 potatoes; 84.0 vegetables; 46.2 meat; and 312.0 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 204 km railways, and 3158 km main roads. The Volga and Vetluga are used for navigation.

REPUBLIC OF MORDOVIA

Republic of Mordovia is situated in the east of European Russia. It was established on January 10, 1930 as an autonomous oblast; on December 20, 1936 it was transformed into the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic - ASSR. Since 1990 it is Republic of Mordovia with an area of 26,200 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 937,100 people, comprising: 32.5% Mordvinians, 60.8% Russians, 4.9% Tatars, and others 1.8%. The density of the population is 35.8 per km2, the urban population 58.5%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 317,000 capital Saransk; 50,800 Ruzaevka; and 23,200 Kovylkino.
The republic is situated in the east of East European Plain. The western area is occupied by Oksko-Donbskaya Plain, the central and eastern areas - by Privolzhskaya Upland (heights up to 322 m), is dissected by ravines abd balkas. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -110C, and in July 190C, precipitation is about 500 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 130 days. The large river is Moksha with tributaries. The republic is situated in the zone of broad-leaved forests with areas of forest-steppe. The soils are mainly leached chernozems, and sod-podzolics. Oak-groves with participation of lime-tree, maple, ash-tree and pine-tree occupy 27% of the territory, arable land - 73%. The Mordovsky reserve is located there.
Wheat, barley, buckweet, rye, sugar-beet, potato, vegetables, and sunflower are cultivated. Fruit growing is present. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, poultry raising, and bee-keeping. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 57.4% cereal crops; 1.1% industrial crops; 5.8% potatoes and vegetables; and 35.7% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.84 grain, 12.4 potatoes, and 10.4 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 364.0 cattle including 173.7 cows; and 181.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 529.5 grain; 381.6 potatoes; 102.8 vegetables; 55.7 meat; and 426.4 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 543 km railways, 4126 km main roads.

REPUBLIC OF NORTH-OSSETIA - ALANIA

Republic of North-Ossetia - Alania is situated in the south of European Russia. It was established on July 7, 1924 as an autonomous oblast; on December 5, 1936 it was transformed into the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic - ASSR; since 1990 it was North-Ossetian SSR, since 1991 it is Republic of North-Ossetia - Alania with an area of 8,000 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 662,700 people, comprising: 53.0% Ossetians, 29.9% Russians, 5.2% Ingushs, 2.2% Armenians, and others 9.7%. The density of population is 82.8 per km2, the urban population 69.1%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 309,100 capital Vladikavkaz; 38,600 Mozdok; and 33,800 Beslan.
The republic is situated on the northern slope of the Great Caucasus. In the north there is Stavropolskaya Plain, southwards there are Tersky and Sunzhensky ranges, in the central part there is Severo-Osetinskaya Plain. In the south there is Glavny or Vodorazdelny range of the Great Caucasus (the highest point Kazbek mountain, 5033 m). The climate is continental. On plain the average temperatures are: in January -4.5 0C, and in July 240C, in piedmont -4 and 200C correspondingly. Precipitation is 600-700 mm per year on plain, up to 900 mm in piedmont, over 1000 m in high mountains. The vegetative season on plain and in piedmont is about 150 days. The main river is Terek with tributaries Urukh, Ardon, Fiagdon, Gizeljdon, Sunzha.
Plains are situated in the steppe and forest-steppe zones and are almost completely ploughed up. On plains soils are chernozemic and chestnut, in the Terek valley - alluvial meadow, in piedmont - mountain forest and mountain meadow. In the Terek flood-plain there are hardwood forests, at the height of 800-1600 m there are broad-leaved forests with beech predominance, at the height of 1600-2000 m pine-tree prevails, over 2000 m there are subalpine and alpine meadows. The Severo-Osetinsky reserve is located there.
Wheat, corn, barley, sunflower, hemp, potatoes, and vegetables are cultivated. Fruit- growing, and vine-growing are present. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, sheep-breeding, stock-breeding, and poultry raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 46.9% cereal crops, 5.1% industrial crops; 6.5% potatoes and vegetables; and 41.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 2.66 grain, 7.1 potatoes, and 5.2 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 128.2 cattle including 62.4 cows; and 56.2 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 123.6 grain; 83.6 potatoes; 21.8 vegetables; 22.9 meat; and 139.3 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 144 km railways, and 2291 km main roads.

REPUBLIC OF SAKHA (YAKUTIA)

Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) is situated in the north of Eastern Siberia, and includes New Siberian Islands; it is washed by the Laptev Sea and the East Siberian Sea. Yakutskaya the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR) was established on April 27, 1922, since 1991 it is Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) with an area of 3,103,200 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,000,700 people, comprising: 33.4% Yakuts, 50.3% Russians, 7.0% Ukrainians, and others 9.3%. The density of population is 0.3 per km2, the urban population 64.4%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 196,500 Yakutsk; 75,100 Neryungri; 36,700 Mirny.
More than one third of the territory is situated over the polar circle. In the west there is Central Siberian Plateau, in the east there are Verkhoyansky, Cherskogo ridges (heights up to 3147 m), in the south there are the Aldan Mountains and Stanovoi Range. In the northern and central parts there are lowlands. The climate is extreme continental. Winter is long, sever with little snow; the average temperatures in January are from -280C on the coast to -500C on the other territory. Summer is short, warm; the average temperatures in July are from 20C on the coast to 190C in central regions. Precipitation is from 200 mm per year in Central Yakutia and in intermontane basins to 700 mm on mountain slopes. The vegetative season is 120-130 days. Permafrost is widespread. The large rivers are Lena (with tributaries Olekma, Aldan and Vilyui), Anabar, Olenek, Yana, Indigirka, Alazeya, and Kolyma.
A large part of the territory is situated in the central taiga zone, which northwards is replaced by tundra and forest-tundra. The soils are mainly sod-calcareouses, gleysems, pales, and peats. Forests occupy about 80% of the territory. The main species are larch (Larix Daurica), pine-tree, cedar elfin wood, spruce, fir-tree, birch, etc. In river valleys and alases there are meadows. On the coast and mountain tops there are bushes, grass, and Lichens.
Stockbreeding prevails, in the north there is reindeer-breeding. Total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 273.5 cattle including 108.0 cows; and 20.4 pigs. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 39.6% cereal crops; 19.0% potatoes and vegetables; and 41.3% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.67 grain, 6.2 potatoes, and 10.3 vegetables. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 17.1 grain; 66.9 potatoes; 28.6 vegetables; 25.9 meat; and 167.3 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 165 km railways (the main is Tynda - Berkakit - Neryungri), and 7071 km main roads (the main Berkatit - Tommot - Yakutsk). Northern Sea Route, the Lena and its tributaries are used for navigation.

REPUBLIC OF TATARSTAN

Republic of Tatarstan is situated in the east of European Russia. It was established on May 27, 1920 as Tatar the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR), since 1992 it is Republic of Tatarstan with an area of 68,000 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 3,784,000 people, comprising: 48.5% Tatars, 43.3% Russians, 3.7% Chuvashs, and others 4.5%. The density of population is 55.6 per km2, the urban population 73.4%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 1,091,500 capital Kazan; 523,100 Naberezhnye Chelny; 223,700 Nizhnekamsk; 141,900 Aljmetjevsk; and 101,500 Zelenodoljsk.
The republic is situated in the east of East European Plain. It is divided into three parts by the Volga and Kama river valleys: the Volga right bank within which there is part of Privolzhskaya Upland dissected by river valleys with ravines with steep scarps to the Volga; the Volga left bank and the Kama right bank - gently rolling plain; left bank of the Kama with northern slopes of Bugulminsko-Belebeevskaya Upland (heights up to 364 m). In the north-west there is the southern part of Vyatsky Uval. The climate is temperate continental. Average temperatures are: in January from -13 to -180C, and in July 19-200C. Precipitation is up to 500 mm per year. The vegetative season about 170 days. The main rivers are Volga, Kama, Belaya, Vyatka; there are Kuibyshevskoe and Nizhnekamskoe reservoirs.
The republic is situated in the broad-leaved and mixed forests as well as forest-steppe zones. The soils are mainly gray forest, and chernozems. Forests are mainly hardwood (oak, lime-tree, maple), and occupy about 16% of the territory. The Nizhnyaya Kama National Park, and Volzhsko-Kamsky reserve are located there.
Cereals (winter wheat, rye, barley, oats, buckwheat) and fodder crops, potatoes, and vegetables are cultivated. There are beef-dairy stockbreeding, sheep-breeding, pig-breeding, and poultry raising. Fur farming, and bee-keeping are present. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 54.1% cereal crops, 3.1% industrial crops; 3.6% potatoes and vegetables; and 39.3% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.64 grain, 14.1 potatoes, and 19.0 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 1178.0 cattle including 517.8 cows; and 684.5 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1940.0 grain; 1245.9 potatoes; 226.5 vegetables; 186.4 meat; and 1490.0 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 917 km railways, and 12144 km main roads. The Volga, Kama, Vyatka, and Belaya rivers are used for navigation.

REPUBLIC OF TUVA

Republic of Tuva is situated in the south of East Siberia; it has borders with Mongolia. It became a part of the composition of the USSR on October 11, 1944 as an autonomous oblast; it was transformed into the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR) on October 10, 1961; since 1991 it is Republic of Tuva. Its area is 170.500 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 310,700 people, comprising: 64.3% Tuvinians, 31.0% Russians, and others 3.7%. The density of population is 1.8 per km2, the urban population 48.2%. The capital is Kyzyl with population 98,700 people (for 01.01.1999).
The central and western areas of the republic are occupied by Tuvinskaya basin surrounded by Western Sayan ranges in the north, Altai in the west and Tannu-Ola in the south. The most elevated eastern part is situated on highlands and slopes of Eastern Sayan (heights up to 3970 m in Mongun-Taiga massif). The climate is extreme continental. Winter is frosty windless, in basins with little snow; the average temperatures in January are from -28 to -350C. Summer is temperate warm in the mountains and hot in basins, the average temperatures in July are 15-200C. Precipitation is from 150 mm per year in basins up to 1000 mm in the mountains. In the north-east areas of permafrost occur. The vegetative season is about 150-160 days. Almost all rivers belong to the Enisei basin. The largest ones are Verkhni Enisei (Ulug-Khem) with left tributary Khemchik, as well as the Enisei components - Bolshoi and Maly Enisei.
The republic is situated in the steppe zone. The soils are mainly chestnuts, and sod-brownzems. In basins steppe vegetation prevails, areas of pine forests occur, in large river valleys there are poplar groves. Mountain forests (cedar, larch, pine-tree) occupy half of the territory, higher 2200 m they are replaced by mountain tundra, more seldom - by meadows. The Azas and Ubsunurskaya Kotlovina reserves are located there.
There are fine-fleeced sheep-breeding and beef-dairy stockbreeding. Goat-breeding, horse-breeding, camel-breeding, reindeer-breeding, and yak-breeding are also present. In Tuvinskaya Basin there is wheat, barley, oats, and fodder crops cultivation. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 61.0% cereal crops, 6.6% potatoes and vegetables; and 23.2% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.38 grain, 7.3 potatoes, and 6.8 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 140.1 cattle including 84.7 cows; and 19.2 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 16.5 grain; 15.0 potatoes; 6.6 vegetables; 15.8 meat; and 53.4 milk.
The length of main roads in 1998 was 2464 km. The Verkhni Enisei (Ulug-Khem) and the lower courses of Bolshoi and Maly Enisei are used for navigation.

ROSTOVSKAYA OBLAST

Rostovskaya Oblast is situated in the south of European Russia, in the south-west it is washed by Gulf of Taganrog of the Sea of Azov. It was established on September 1937 with an area of 100,800 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 4,367,900 people, comprising: 89.6% Russians, 4.2% Ukrainians, and others 6.2%. The density of population is 43.3 per km2, the urban population 67.8%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 1,005,800 center Rostov-na-Donu; 286,400 Taganrog; 222,800 Shakhty; 185,400 Novocherkassk; 180,200 Volgodonsk; and 102,200 Novoshakhtinsk.
The oblast is situated in the southern part of East European Plain, and partially in Ciscaucasia. The relief is mainly plain. In the west there are eastern offshoots of Donetsky ridge (heights up to 253 m), in the north there is Donskaya ridge, in the south-east there are gentle offshoots of Ergeni Upland, in the south there is Kumo-Manuchskaya depression. The surface of the oblast is dissected by river valleys, ravines and balkas. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January from -90C in the north up to -50C in the south, and in July 22-240C. Precipitation is 450-650 mm per year. The vegetative season is 170-190 days. The main river is Don with tributaries Severski Donets, Sal, Manych, etc.
The oblast is situated in the steppe zone. Chernozems prevail, there are also dark chestnuts soils and solonchaks. Forests remained along ravines and balkas, the main species are oak, maple, ash-tree, aspen, elm, they occupy 6% of the territory. 60-70% of the area are ploughed up. The Rostovski Reserve is located there.
There are wheat, barley, rice, sunflower, caster-oil plant, coriander, mustard cultivation; vegetable growing; melons growing; fruit growing, and vine growing. Beef-dairy stockbreeding is presented. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 57.3% cereal crops, 22.1% industrial crops; 3.6% potatoes and vegetables-melons; and 17.1% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.5 grain, 5.8 potatoes, and 7.7 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 635.2 cattle including 316.3 cows; and 744.9 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 2607.4 grain; 351.2 potatoes; 316.3 vegetables; 131.0 meat; and 760.0 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1933 km railways, and 10482 km main roads. The Don, Severski Donets, Zapadny Manych, and the Sea of Azov are used for navigation.

RYAZANSKAYA OBLAST

Ryazanskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on September 26, 1937 with an area of 39,600 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,298,300 people, comprising: 96.1% Russians, and others 3.9%.The density of population is 32.8 per km2, the urban population 67.2%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 528,800 center Ryazan; 37,800 Kasimov; 32,800 Sasovo; 27,900 Skopin; and 25,200 Ryazhsk.
In the north there is Meshcherskaya Lowland, in the west there are offshoots of Central Russian Upland (heights up to 236 m). The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -110C, and in July 190C. Precipitation is about 550 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 180 days. The main river is Oka with tributaries Pra, Gusj, Pronya, Para and Moksha with Tsna. In the south of the oblast there are heads of the Voronezh river. On Meshcherskaya Lowland there are many lakes. The oblast is situated in the subtaiga and forest-steppe zones. In the north soils are derno-podzolic, in some places swamp, gray forest; in the south - podzolized, leached on loess loam chernozems, in river valleys - alluvial-meadow. Forests (the main species - pine-tree and birch) occupy about 35% of the territory, arable land - about 50%. The Meshcherski National Park, and the Okskij Reserve are located there.
There are beef-dairy stockbreeding; pig-breeding, poultry raising, and sheep-breeding. There is also pure-strain horse-breeding. Barley, wheat, rye, oats, fodder crops, sugar-beet are cultivated. There is fruit and berries growing. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 56.9% cereal crops, 1.5% industrial crops; 5.7% potatoes and vegetables; and 36.0% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.93 grain, 12.4 potatoes, and 14.0 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 386.9 cattle including 187.3 cows; and 135.2 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 709.7 grain; 526.5 potatoes; 174.0 vegetables; 49.6 meat; and 480.6 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 976 km railways, and 6395 km main roads. The Oka, Moksha, and Tsna are used for navigation.

SAINT PETERSBURG

Saint Petersburg is the center of Leningradskaya oblast, a city of federal importance, a subject of the Russian Federation. It is situated in the north-west of European Russia on the Neva river and contiguous to its mouth the Neva inlet coast of Gulf of Finland of the Baltic Sea and on numerous islands of ramified Neva delta. It is subject to floods danger. The area is 605.8 km2. The population amounts to 4,695,400 people (by 01.01.1999). The national composition (according to the 1989 census): Russians, Ukrainians, Jews, others, %.
The climate is marine with features of continental. Weather is unstable in all seasons. Winter is temperate mild with predominance of temperately frosty, mainly cloudy weather; the average temperature of the coldest months January and February is -7.80C. Spring is late, protracted. Summer is temperate warm with alternation of sunny and rainy days; the average temperature in July is 17.80C. Autumn is long, cloudy, foggy. Precipitation is about 620 mm per year mainly in July and August.

SAKHALINSKAYA OBLAST

Sakhalinskaya Oblast is situated in the extreme east of Russia, it embraces Sakhalin and Kuril Islands. It is washed by waters of the Sea of Okhotsk and Sea of Japan and the Pacific Ocean. It was established on October 20, 1932 with an area of 87,100 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 608,500 people, comprising: 81.6% Russians, 6.5% Ukrainians, 5.0% Koreans, and others 6.9%. The density of population is 7.0 per km2, the urban population 85.7%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 176,900 center Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk; 40,900 Kholmsk; 39,100 Korsakov; and 29,100 Okha.
The relief is mainly mountainous. Along Sakhalin island coast mountains of medium height stretch, the north of the island is plain. The climate is temperate monsoon. The average temperatures are: in January from -60C in the south to -240C in the north, and in August from 190C in the south to 100C in the north. In mountains precipitation is up to 1200 mm per year, on plains about 600 mm. The main rivers are Tymj and Poronaj, there are many small lakes and bogs. On plains soils are peat-podzolic-swamp loamy, moderately and slightly podzolic loamy-sandy, swamp, alluvial meadow-sod and meadow-gley; in mountains - brown taiga nonpodzolized and weakly podzolized, mountain podzolic occur. In the north there is light larch taiga, in the central part - spruce (Picea ajanensis) and fir-tree; in the south-west there are broad-leaved forests with lianas (actinidia, magnolia vine, vine), in the west there is bamboo (Sasa kurilensis) undergrowth. In mountains there is birch (Betula ermanii) and cedar elfin wood. In the north of Sakhalin the Poronaisky reserve is located, on Kunashir island there is the Kurilsky reserve.
Potatoes, vegetables, and fodder crops are cultivated. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, poultry raising, fur farming; in the north there is reindeer-breeding. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 34.2% potatoes and vegetables; and 65.8% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 10.8 potatoes, and 12.2 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 26.5 cattle including 12.2 cows; and 13.9 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 154.0 potatoes; 44.5 vegetables; 3.0 meat, and 32.0 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 957 km railways, 1808 km main roads.

SAMARSKAYA OBLAST

Samarskaya Oblast is situated in the south-east of European Russia. It was established on May 14, 1928 as Srednevolzhskaya Oblast, since 1929 it was Srednevolzhsky Krai, since 1935 Kujbyshevsky Krai, in 1936-1990 Kujbyshevskaya Oblast. The area is 53,600 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 3,305,300 people, comprising: 83.4% Russians, 3.6% Chuvashs, 3.6% Mordvinians, 3.5% Tatars, 2.5% Ukrainians, and others 3.5%. The density of population is 61.7 per km2, the urban population 80.6%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 1,170,800 center Samara; 719,100 Tolyatti; 187,000 Syzranj; 115,900 Novokujbyshevsk; 83,100 Chapaevsk.
The oblast is situated in the south-east of East European Plain, in the middle course of the Volga, where it forms an arched meander - Samarskaya Luka. It is divided into right bank and left bank parts. The right bank part is occupied by Privolzhskaya Upland crossed by ravines and balkas, in the northern part of Samarskaya Luka there are the Zhiguli Mountains (up to 370 m). In the left bank part in the north-west Nizkoe Zavolzhje is situated, in the north-east there is Vysokoe Zavolzhje. In the south there is gently sloping - rolling plain which in the south-east transforms into Obshchij Syrt Upland. The climate is continental, arid. The average temperatures are: in January -13 0C, and in July 210C. Precipitation is about 400 mm per year. The vegetative season is 180 days. The main river is Volga with tributariesUsa, Syzranj, Bolshoj Cheremshan, Sok, Samara, and Bolshoi Irgiz; there are Kuybyshevskoe and Saratovskoe reservoirs.
The oblast is situated in the forest-steppe and steppe zones. The soils are mainly chernozems, and dark chestnuts. Forests occupy about 12% of the territory, in the Zhiguli and on divides there are mainly broad-leaved (oak, lime-tree, maple) forests, on sandy soils of the Volga left bank and along the Samara river there are pine-tree forests. In the southern part of the oblast there are feather-grass - tipchak (Festuca sulcata) steppes which are almost completely ploughed up. In river flood-plains there are flow meadows. The Samarskaya Luka national park, and Zhigulevsky Reserve are located there.
Wheat, millet, rye, barley, oats, buckwheat, and sunflower are cultivated. There are beef-dairy stockbreeding, and beef-wool sheep-breeding. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 64.9% cereal crops, 11.5% industrial crops; 3.1% potatoes and vegetables; and 20.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.86 grain, 7.6 potatoes, and 10.8 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 471.7 cattle including 230.3 cows; and 344.0 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 647.5 grain; 400.3 potatoes; 170.4 vegetables; 95.3 meat; and 669.8 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1388 km railways, and 7047 km main roads. The Volga is used for navigation.

SARATOVSKAYA OBLAST

Saratovskaya Oblast is situated in the south-east of European Russia. It was established on January 10, 1934 with an area of 100,200 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 2,719,000 people, comprising: 85.6% Russians, 3.8% Ukrainians, 2.7% Kazakhs, and others 7.9%. The density of population is 27.1 per km2, the urban population 73.4%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 878,800 center Saratov; 208,200 Balakovo; 189,900 Engels; 95,300 Balashov; 70,900 Volsk; and 43,300 Rtishchevo.
The oblast is situated in the south-east of East European Plain, in Nizhnee Zavolzhje. It is divided by the Volga into two parts: western (right bank) and eastern (left bank; Zavolzhje). The right bank is occupied mainly by Privolzhskaya Upland (up to 370 m). On the left bank there is a slightly high plain dissected by dry hollows, balkas and limited in the east by the Obshchij Syrt offshoots. In the southern part of Zavolzhje there is Prikaspijskaya Lowland. The climate is continental. The average temperatures are: in January -120C, and in July 220C. Precipitation is from 250 mm in the south-east up to 450 mm in the north-west per year. The vegetative season is 125-150 days. The main river is Volga with tributaries Tereshka, and Bolshoi Irgiz; there are Volgogradskoe and Saratovskoe reservoirs. In the west there are the Khoper, Medveditsa (the Don tributaries) rivers.
The oblast is situated in the forest-steppe, steppe and semi-desert zones. The soils are mainly dark chestnut, and solonetzes. Steppes are almost completely ploughed up. Forests (elm, oak, birch, lime-tree) occupy 5% of the territory and are situated mainly in the north-east right bank as well as in flood-plains. The Khvalynsky national park is located there.
Cereal crops (wheat, rye, etc.), industrial crops (sunflower, sugar beet), fodder crops are cultivated. There are beef-dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, and poultry raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 72.0% cereal crops, 9.4% industrial crops; 1.3% potatoes and vegetables; and 17.3% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.44 grain, 9.3 potatoes, and 22.5 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 716.6 cattle including 343.4 cows; and 410.2 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1229.3 grain; 139.4 potatoes; 164.3 vegetables; 128.7 meat; and 972.2 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 2312 km railways, and 9828 km main roads. The Volga is used for navigation.

SMOLENSKAYA OBLAST

Smolenskaya Oblast is situated in the west of European Russia. It was established on September 27, 1937 with an area of 49,800 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,142,700 people, comprising: 94.1% Russians, and others 5.9%. The density of the population is 22.9 per km2, the urban population 69.5%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 352,700 center Smolensk; 60,200 Vyazma; 59,300 Roslavl; 57,400 Yartsevo; and 53,6 00 Safonovo.
The greater part of the oblast is situated within Smolensko-Moskovskaya and Vyazemskaya Upland (up to 319 m) with rolling, hilly in some areas relief and comparatively deeply incised river valleys. On others part of the territory there are lowlands, in the north-west there are moraine ridges. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -90C, and in July 170C. Precipitation is about 600 mm per year, maximum in summer. The vegetative season is about 180 days. The main river is Dnieper with tributaries (Sozh, Desna, Vopj, Vyazjma), in the north-west there are many lakes. The oblsat is situated in the mixed forests zone. Forests (aspen, birch, alder-tree, spruce) occupy about 40% of the territory. The soils are sod-podzolics. The Smolenskoe Poozerje national park is located there.
There are dairy-beef stockbreeding and pig-breeding; horse-breeding (trotter breed). Barley, oats, rye, and flax-fibre are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 33.2% cereal crops, 0.7% industrial crops; 5.8% potatoes and vegetables; and 60.3% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.02 grain, 16.1 potatoes, and 22.4 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 318.6 cattle including 182.8 cows; and 139.4 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 188.6 grain; 216.9 potatoes; 102.1 vegetables; 41.9 meat; and 475.0 milk.
The length of transport routes in1998 was: 1259 km railways, and 8819 km main roads. The Dnieper is used for navigation.

STAVROPOLSKY KRAI

Stavropolsky Krai is situated in the south of European Russia, in Ciscaucasia. It was established on February 13, 1924 as Yugo-Vostochnaya Oblast (Krai); in 1924-1937 it was Severo-Kavkazsky Krai; from March 13, 1937 to January 12, 1943 it was Ordzhonikidzevsky Krai. Its area is 66,500 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 2,659,900 people, comprising: 84.1% Russians, 2.9% Armenians, 2.6% Ukranians 2.6, and others 10.5%. The density of population is 40.0 per km2, the urban population 53.6%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 343,500 center Stavropol; 132,200 Nevinnimysk; 128,600 Pyatigorsk; and 112,700 Kislovodsk.
The greater part of the krai is occupied by Stavropolskaya Upland, in the east it is replaced by Tersko-Kumskaya Lowland, and in the north there is Kumo-Manychskaya depression. In the belt of foothills region of Caucasian Mineral Waters with mountains-laccoliths (Beshtau mountain, 1401 m) is singled out. The climate is continental. The average temperatures are: in January -40C, and in July 20-250C. Precipitation is 300-650 mm per year. The vegetative season is 207-220 days. The main rivers are Kuban, Kuma with Podkumok, Kalaus, Egorlyk.
The krai is situated mainly in the steppe and semi-desert zones. The soils are mainly chernozems. Forbs-cereals steppes prevail, in the east and north-east there is sagebrush-cereal vegetation with solonetzs and solonchaks. Steppes are mainly ploughed up. On high areas of Stavropolskaya Upland there are massifs of oak-hornbeam forests (areas of forest-steppe).
Wheat, corn, sunflower, sugar beet, etc. are cultivated; there are fruit-growing, vine-growing. Fine-fleeced sheep-breeding, dairy-beef stockbreeding are present. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 are: 59.4% cereal crops, 14.2% industrial crops; 2.7% potatoes and vegetables; and 23.7% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 2.25 grain, 5.4 potatoes, and 6.6 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 446.4 cattle including 212.3 cows; and 510.9 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 3292.8 grain; 285.3 potatoes; 137.4 vegetables; 121.0 meat; and 524.9 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 94 km railways, and 7447 km main roads.

SVERDLOVSKAYA OBLAST

Sverdlovskaya Oblast is situated in the Urals. It was established on January 17, 1934 with an area of 194,800 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 4,631,000 people, comprising: 88.7% Russians, 3.9% Tatars, and others 7.4%. The density of population is 23.8 per km2, the urban population 87.6%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 1,270,700 center Ekaterinburg; 395,400 Nizhni Tagil; 191,100 Kamensk-Uralski; 135,700 Pervouralsk; 100,000 Serov; and 81,300 Asbest.
The oblast occupies mainly eastern slopes of the Central and Northern Urals and the contiguous outskirts of West-Siberian Plain (Transurals). In the south-west there is ouval-hilly and slightly uphilled Preduralje (up to 1569 m high). The climate is continental. Winter is cold, long, the average temperatures in January are: on plains of Transurals from -200C in the north up to -150C in the south. Summer is temperate warm, in the south-east hot, the average temperatures in July are from 160C in the north up to 190C in the south-east. Precipitation is from 350 mm per year in the south-east up to 500 mm in the north and 600 mm in the mountains. The vegetative season is 130 days. The main rivers are Tavda with Pelym, Sosjva and Lozjva, Tura, Isetj, Chusovaya and Ufa.
The oblast is situated in the central and southern taiga, as well as mixed forests zones. The soils are mainly sod-podzolics, and brownzems. In the mountain areas dark coniferous taiga (mainly spruce) prevails. In the north of Transurals there are pine forests, in lowlands there is spruce taiga with addition of cedar, southwards there is a belt of aspen-birch forests, pine forests. In Preduralje there are places of forest-steppe and broad-leaved - spruce forests. Forests occupy 61% of the territory. Priishtymskie Bory national park, Visimsky, Denezhkin Kamenj reserves are located there.
There was dairy and dairy-beef stockbreeding, poultry raising, pig-breeding, goat-breeding, and sheep-breeding. Fodder crops, wheat, barley, oats, as well as potatoes and vegetables are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 44.8% cereal crops, 7.7% potatoes and vegetables; and 47.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.59 grain, 15.1 potatoes, and 18.8 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 476.6 cattle including 237.4 cows; and 297.8 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 595.8 grain; 974.0 potatoes; 268.0 vegetables; 120.7 meat; and 742.0 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 3551 km railways, and 10107 km main roads. The Tavda river and tributaries Lozjva and Sosjva as well as the Tura river are used for navigation.

TAIMYR (DOLGANO-NENETS) AUTONOMOUS OKRUG

Taimyr (Dolgano-Nenets) Autonomous Okrug is a subject of the Russian Federation within the structure of Krasnoyarsky Krai. It is situated in Krainy Sever of Eastern Siberia over polar circle. It includes Severnaya Zemlya. Nordensheld and other archipelagos, and is washed by the Kara and Laptev seas. It was established on December 30, 1930 with an area of 862,100 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 44,300 people, comprising: 8.8% Dolgans, 4.4% Nenets, 1.5% Nganasans, 67.1% Russians, 8.6% Ukrainians, and others 9.6%. The density of population is 0.05 per km2, the urban population 65.0%. The administrative center is Dudinka (27,200 people for 01.01.1999).
The okrug occupies Taimyr peninsula, greater part of North Siberian Plain, northern part of Central Siberian Plateau (heights up to 1629 m on Putoran Plateau). In the south-west, on the left bank of the Enisei there is part of West Siberian Plain. The climate is arctic and subarctic. Winter is sever and long (up to 10 months), summer is cold. The average temperatures are: in January -320C, and in July 2-130C. Precipitation is about 250 mm per year. The vegetative season is 40-80 days. Permafrost is widespread. The main rivers are Enisei, Pyasina, Khatanga, and Taimyra. There are many lakes and swamped areas.
The soils are gleyzems, podburs tundra, Arctic (cryozems), and peats. In the north of the okrug there are arctic and high mountain deserts, and semi-deserts, in the middle part there is tundra vegetation, in the south there is forest-tundra with light larch-tree forests and bushes. The Putoransky, and Taimyrsky reserves are located there.
There are reindeer-breeding, fur bearing animals hunting, and fur farming. Beef-dairy stockbreeding and poultry raising are insignificant. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 0.1 meat; and 0.1 milk.
The length of main roads is 262 km. The Enisei, and Khatanga rivers and Northern Sea Route are used for navigation.

TAMBOVSKAYA OBLAST

Tambovskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on September 27, 1937 with an area of 34,300 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,283,700 people, comprising: 97.2% Russians, and others 2.8%. The density of population is 37.4 per km2, the urban population 57.4%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 314,100 center Tambov; 119,200 Michurinsk; 49,200 Morshansk; and 48,600 Rasskazovo.
The oblast occupies the central part of Oksko-Donskaya Plain (heights up to 219 m). The relief is gentle-rolling, dissected by balkas and ravines. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -110C, and in July 200C. Precipitation is about 500 mm per years. The vegetative season is 175-185 days. There are rivers of the Volga (Tsna with tributaries) and the Don (Vorona, Voronezh, Savala, Bityug) basins. The oblast is situated in the forest-steppe zone. The soils are meadow-chernozemics, and chernozems. Forests (the main species are pine-tree, oak, maple, lime-tree, ash-tree, birch, aspen) occupy about 10% of the territory, arable land - up to 70%. The Voroninsky reserve is located there.
Wheat, rye, barley, sugar beet, sunflower, potato are cultivated. Gardening is present. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding; pig-breeding; sheep-breeding, and poultry raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 58.4% cereal crops, 13.7% industrial crops; 5.0% potatoes and vegetables; and 22.9% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.94 grain, 12.3 potatoes, and 13.3 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 294.1 cattle including 154.1 cows; and 295.7 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1320.0 grain; 415.3 potatoes; 180.8 vegetables; 65.8 meat; and 355.0 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 736 km railways, and 5060 km main roads. The Tsna is used for navigation.

TOMSKAYA OBLAST

Tomskaya Oblast is situated in the south-east of West Siberia. It was established on August 13, 1944 with an area of 316,900 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,072,200 people, comprising: 88.2% Russians, 2.6% Ukrainians, and others 9.2%. The density of population is 3.4 per km2, the urban population 65.7%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 481,100 center Tomsk; 119,000 Seversk; and 44,000 Strezhevoi.
Flat, very swamped territories of West Siberian Plain prevail; only in the south-east there are northern offshoots of the Kuznetsky Alatau (up to 211 m). Wide Ob valley divides the oblast into two almost equal parts: the left bank which includes swamped Vasyuganskaya Plain, and the higher right bank. The climate is continental. Winter is sever and long, the average temperatures in January are from -19 to -210C. Summer is warm, short, The average temperature in July is 17-180C. Precipitation is 450-700 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 125 days. The main river is Ob with tributaries Tom, Chulym, Ketj, Tym, Chaya, Parabel, and Vasyugan.
The oblast is situated in the central and southern taiga and partially mixed forests zones. The soils are mainly peats high moor, sod-gleys, and podzolic. Forests (the main species are birch, pine-tree, cedar, aspen, fir-tree, spruce) occupy about 54% of the territory.
Wheat, rye, and barley are cultivated. There are beef-dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and poultry raising, as well as fur bearing animals hunting and fur farming. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 53.4% cereal crops, 0.2% industrial crops; 5.3% potatoes and vegetables; and 41.2% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.51 grain, 13.1 potatoes, and 20.1 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 182.7 cattle including 84.7 cows; and 132.2 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 326.3 grain; 286.6 potatoes; 84.1 vegetables; 29.3 meat; and 205.2 milk.
The length of transport routs in 1998 was: 346 km railways, and 3338 km main roads. The Ob, Chulym, and Tom are used for navigation.

TULSKAYA OBLAST

Tulskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on September 26, 1937 with an area of 25.700 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,763,400 people, comprising: 95.4% Russians, and others 4.6%. The density of population is 68.6 per km2, the urban population 81.2%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 509,600 center Tula, 139,000 Novomoskovsk, 70,300 Aleksin, 65,100 Schekino, 60,300 Uzlovaya, and 54,100 Efremov.
The relief is a gentle rolling erosional plain in the north of Central Russian Upland (heights up to 293 m). The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -100C, and in July 190C. Precipitation is about 500 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 180-190 days. A great part of rivers belong to the Oka basin excluding the upper course of the Don. The oblast is situated in the broad-leaved forests and forest-steppe zones. The soils are leached chernozems, and greys forest. Forests (oak, pine-tree) in some places occupy from 10 to 50% of the territory, arable land - from 20% in the north to 70% in the south.
There are beef-dairy stockbreeding, poultry raising, and pig-breeding. Wheat, rye, buckwheat, sugar beet, and potatoes are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 57.0% cereal crops, 2.3% industrial crops; 6.8% potatoes and vegetables; and 33.8% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.54 grain, 17.2 potatoes, and 19.2 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 322.2 cattle including 162.8 cows; and 223.5 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 782.6 grain; 750.0 potatoes; 185.8 vegetables; 59.8 meat; and 398.1 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1103 km railways, and 5076 km main roads. The Oka is used for navigation.

TVERSKAYA OBLAST

Tverskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on January 29, 1935 ( till 1990 it had been called Kalininskaya Oblast) with an area of 84,100 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,613,500 people, comprising: 93.5% Russians, 1.4% Karelians, and others 5.1%. The density of population is 19.2 per km2, the urban population 72.2%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 451,900 center Tverj; 68,800 Rzhev; 60,600 Vyshni Volochek, 59,300 Kimry; 50,300 Torzhok; and 44,300 Konakovo.
The oblast is situated in the central part of East European Plain. The surface is plain with alternation of moraine hilly uplands and outwash depressions. In the west there is Valdaiskaya Upland (up to 346 m), and in the south-east there is Privolzhskaya Lowland. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -90C, and in July 170C. Precipitation is about 650 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 190 days. The main river is Volga with tributaries Selizharovka, Tvertsa, Medveditsa, Mologa, etc. There are over 500 lakes including the Seliger, and the Volgo, etc; and the Ivanjkovskoe, Uglichskoe, Rybinskoe, Vyshnevolotskoe reservoirs. The oblast is situated in the south-taiga and subtaiga zones. The soils are sod-podzolics, podzols, and peats. Forests (spruce and pine-tree) occupy 50% of the territory. The Tsentralno-Lesnoi reserve is located there.
There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, sheep-breeding, and poultry raising. Flax-fibre, potatoes, vegetables, and fodder crops are also cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 31.8% cereal crops, 3.3% industrial crops; 5.4% potatoes and vegetables; and 59.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.9 grain, 15.5 potatoes, and 26.3 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 417.3 cattle including 216.0 cows; and 175.4 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 252.2 grain; 587.9 potatoes; 229.7 vegetables; 57.8 meat; and 550.6 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1789 km railways, and 14830 km main roads. The Volga, and Seliger Lake are used for navigation.

TYUMENSKAYA OBLAST

Tyumenskaya Oblast is situated in the north of West Siberia; in the north it is washed by the Kara Sea. Within composition of the oblast there are subjects of the Russian Federartion: Khanty-Mansi and Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrugs. It was established on August 14, 1944 with an area of 1,435,200 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 3,243,500 people, comprising: 72.6% Russians, 8.4% Ukrainians, 7.3% Tatars, and others 11.7%. The density of population is 2.3 per km2, the urban population 76.3%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 502,500 center Tyumen, 98,000 Tobolsk, 61,100 Ishim, and 37,600 Yalutorovsk.
The oblast is situated mainly on West Siberian Plain. In the west there are slopes of Severny, Pripolyarny and Polyarny Urals (Narodnaya mountain, 1895 m). The plain part is very swamped, there are many lakes. The climate is continental. In the north winter is long (8-10 months): the average temperatures are: in January from -290C; and in July 4-150C; in the central part the average temperatures are: in January -230C, and in July 16-180C; in the south -19 and 190C correspondingly. Precipitation is 200-600 mm per year. In the north permafrost is widespread. The vegetative season in the southern part is 50-162 days. The main rivers are Ob (with Irtysh), Taz, Pur, and Nadym; there are many lakes.
The soils are mainly peats high moor, meadows solonetzic and solonchakous, and pine forest sands. Vegetation in the north is tundra and forest tundra, southwards - taiga (pine-tree, fir-tree, cedar, spruce, and larch), transforming into forest- steppe with birch kolkis. Forests and bushes occupy 21% of the territory. There are considerable areas of swamped and solonchaks meadows. The Verkhnetazovsky, Malaya Sosjva, and Yugansky reserves are located there.
There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, and goat-breeding. In the north there are reindeer-breeding, fur farming, and fur-bearing animals hunting. In the southern areas rye, wheat, oats, barley, fodder crops, potatoes, and vegetables are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 56.3% cereal crops, 2.0% industrial crops; 4.2% potatoes and vegetables; and 37.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.82 grain, 18.1 potatoes, and 17.2 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 384.7 cattle including 188.6 cows, and 351.4 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 864.6 grain; 520.9 potatoes; 105.3 vegetables; 82.5 meat; and 521.1 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 2451 km railways, and 8709 km main roads. The Ob, Irtysh, Tobol, and Tura are used for navigation.

UDMURT REPUBLIC

Udmurt Republic is situated in the western part of the Central Urals, between the Kama and Vyatka rivers. It was established in November 1920 as Votskatya Autonomous Oblast, on December 28, 1934 it was transformed into the Udmurt Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR), since 1990 it is Udmurt Republic. The area is 42,100 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,632,600 people, comprising: 30.9% Udmurts, 58.9% Russians, 6.9% Tatars, and others 3.3%. The density of population is 38.8 per km2, the urban population 69.7%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 654,900 center Izhevsk, 106,300 Glazov, 106,200 Sarapul, and 102,.003 Votkinsk.
The relief is hilly plain dissected by river valleys and ravines. In the north there is Verkhnekamskaya Upland (heights up to 330 m), in the west there is poorly drained and in some places swamped lowland, in the south there are uplands. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January from -14 to -150C, and in July 17-190C. Precipitation is 400-600 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 150 days. The main rivers are Kama and tributaries of Vyatka; there is the Votkinskoe reservoir. The republic is situated in the southern taiga and mixed forests zones. The soils are mainly sod-podzolics, and greys forest. Forests (spruce, fir-tree, pine-tree, larch, birch, lime-tree, and aspen) occupy about 40% of the territory.
There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, poultry raising, and sheep-breeding. Bee-keeping is also present. Rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, fodder crops, potatoes, flax-fibre, and vegetables are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 49.8% cereal crops, 0.5% industrial crops; 4.8% potatoes and vegetables; and 44.9% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.09 grain, 15.3 potatoes, and 18.6 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 469.5 cattle including 207.2 cows; and 289.4 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 526.7 grain; 597.0 potatoes; 148.7 vegetables; 77.5 meat; and 590.9 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 776 km railways, and 5064 km main roads. The Kama is used for navigation.

ULYANOVSKAYA OBLAST

Ulyanovskaya Oblast is situated in the south-east of European Russia, in Central Povolzhje. It was established on January 19, 1943 with an area of 37,300 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,472,100 people, comprising: 72.8% Russians, 11.4% Tatars, 8.3% Chuvashs, 4.4% Mordvinians, and others 3.1%. The density of population is 39.5 per km2, the urban population 72.6%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 670,200 center Ulyanovsk, and 136,700 Dmitrovgrad.
The Volga divides the oblast into the high right bank and the low left bank (Zavolzhje). The right bank is occupied by Privolzhskaya Upland (up to 363 m), on the left bank there is gently-ouval plain. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -130C, and in July 190C. Precipitation is about 400 mm per year. The vegetative season is 174 days. The main river is Volga with tributaries Sura, Sviyaga and other; there is the Kuybyshevskoe reservoir. The oblast is situated in the forest-steppe and broad-leaved forests zones. The soils are mainly chernozems leached, and sod-podzolics. Forests occupy 25% of the territory. In the north-west there are large massifs of oak forests with participation of lime-tree, maple, in Zavolzhje there are meadow steppes, and pine forests.
There are beef-dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and sheep-breeding. Bee-keeping is also presented. Wheat, rye, millet, buckwheat, and sugar beet are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 60.8% cereal crops, 5.1% industrial crops; 3.5% potatoes and vegetables; and 30.6% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.82 grain, 8.8 potatoes, and 9.9 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 342.0 cattle including 168.9 cows; and 219.8 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 461.7 grain; 263.7 potatoes; 105.6 vegetables; 49.1 meat; and 425.8 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 709 km railways, and 4637 km main roads. The Volga is used for navigation.

UST-ORDA BURYAT AUTONOMOUS OKRUG

Ust-Orda Buryat Autonomous Okrug is a subject of the Russian Federation within Irkutskaya Oblast. It is situated in the south of Eastern Siberia. It was established on September 26, 1937 with an area of 22,400 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 143,200 people, comprising: 36.3% Buryats, 56.5% Russians, 3.2% Tatars, 1.7% Ukrainians, and others 2.3%. The density of population is 6.4 per km2, there is no urban population. The administrative center is Ust-Ordynsky settlement.
The okrug is situated in Predbaikalje, within the limits of Leno-Angarskoe Plateau. The heights there are over 1000 m. The surface is very dissected by river valleys. The climate is extreme continental. Winter is cold with little snow. The average temperatures are: in January -220C, and in July 170C. Precipitation is about 300 mm per year. The vegetative season is 110-125 days. The large river is Angara, in the extreme north-east there are rivers of the Lena basin; there is the Bratskoe reservoir. A great part of the territory is situated within forest-steppe. The soils are brownzems weakly-unsaturated, and podburs taiga. Forests (pine-tree, and larch) occupy about 20%.
There is dairy-beef stockbreeding, as well as sheep-breeding, pig-breeding, and horse-breeding. Wheat is cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 53.2% cereal crops, 0.1% industrial crops; 3.3% potatoes and vegetables; and 43.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.25 grain, 14.7 potatoes, 16.7 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 137.8 cattle including 61.0 cows; and 60.9 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 247.7 grain; 156.6 potatoes; 20.9 vegetables; 18.9 meat; and 144.4 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 30 km railways, and 2196 km main roads. The Angara is used for navigation.

VLADIMIRSKAYA OBLAST

Vladimirskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia in the interfluve of the Volga and the Oka. It was established on August 14, 1944 with an area of 29,000 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,617,700 people, comprising: 95.8% Russians, and others 4.2%. The density of population is 55.8 per km2, the urban population 59.8%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 336,100 center Vladimir, 161,900 Kovrov, 141,400 Murom, 73,500 Gus-Khrustalny, and 65,900 Aleksandrov.
The relief is a slightly rolling plain. In the north-west there is Smolensko-Moskovskaya upland, in the central part there is Vladimirskoe opolje (heights up to 236 m), in the south there is Mescherskaya lowland. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -110C, and in July 170C, precipitation is about 500 mm per year (the maximum in summer). The vegetative season is about 170 days. Rivers belong to the Volga basin: Oka, Klyazma, etc. The oblast is situated in the subtaiga zone. The soils are sod-podzolics, peats boggy, and light-greys forest. Forests occupy 42% of the territory: mainly pine-tree, and spruce. The Meschera national park is located there.
There are beef-dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, goat-breeding; and horse-breeding (Vladimir heavy draught-horses). Wheat, rye, barley, and oats are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 35.2% cereal crops; 0.3% industrial crops; 13.1% potatoes and vegetables; and 52.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.8 grain, 8.1 potatoes, and 22.3 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 232.2 cattle including 110.8 cows; and 79.8 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 186.0 grain; 527.7 potatoes; 213.6 vegetables; 35.4 meat; and 356.2 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 928 km railways, and 5509 km main roads. The Oka and the Klyazma (in the lower course) are used for navigation.

VOLGOGRADSKAYA OBLAST

Volgogradskaya Oblast is situated in the south-east of East European plain. It was established on January 10, 1934 as Stalingradsky Krai, since 1936 it is an oblast with an area of 113,900 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 2,693,000 people, comprising: 89.1% Russians, 3.1% Ukrainians, and others 7.8%. The density of population is 23.6 per km2, the urban population 74.0%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 995,800 center Volgograd, 287,200 Volzhsky, and 126,700 Kamyshin.
The territory is divided by the Volga into two parts: high right-bank (heights up to 358 m), and low left-bank (Zavolzhje). The climate is continental, with cold, with little snow winter, and hot and dry summer. The average temperatures are: in January from -8 to -120C, and in July 22-240C. Precipitation is about 350 mm per year. The vegetative season is 150-175 days. The main rivers are Volga and Don with tributaries; there are the Volgograzskoe and Tsimlyanskoe reservoirs. In Zavolzhje there are Elton and Baskunchak salt lakes; many brackish lagoons.
The oblast is situated mainly in the steppe zone and partially in semi-desert. The soils are mainly chernozems southern, and solonetzes meadowish. Forb steppes, mainly ploughed up are replaced by sagebrush-grass semi-deserts in the south-east. Forests (oak, maple) are mainly distributed in river valleys and occupy 4% of the territory.
Cereal, oil-bearing crops, and vegetables are cultivated. There are cattle-breeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, and poultry-raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 64.9% cereal crops; 15.9% industrial crops; 2.6% potatoes and vegetables; and 16.6% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 0.56 grain, 7.6 potatoes, and 10.7 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 567.7 cattle including 263.6 cows; and 620.2 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 998.6 grain; 209.6 potatoes; 251.7 vegetables; 127.3 meat; and 597.6 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1619 km railways, and 8467 km main roads. The Volga, and Don and reservoirs are used for navigation..

VOLOGODSKAYA OBLAST

Vologodskaya Oblast is situated in the north-west of European Russia. It was established on September 23, 1937 with an area of 145,700 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,328,100 people, comprising: 96.5% Russians, and others 3.5%. The density of population is 9.1 per km2, the urban population 67.5%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 301,300 center Vologda, 323,600 Cherepovets, 45,400 Sokol, and 35,700 Veliky Ustyug.
Morainal lake relief prevails with heights up to 304 m. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -140C, and in July 180C. Precipitation is about 500 mm per year. The vegetative season is from 110 days in the north-east up to 130 days in the south of the oblast. The main rivers are Sukhona (with tributaries Dvinitsa, and Vologda), Yug, and Mologa with Sheksna. There are the Rybinskoe and Cherepovetskoe reservoirs; the large lakes are: Onezhskoe, Beloe, Kubenskoe, and Vozhe. The oblast is situated in the zone of middle and southern taiga. The soils are mainly sod-podzolics, podzolics, and peats high moor. Forests occupy about 2/3 of the territory more than 60% of which are coniferous (mainly spruce). There are the Russky Sever national park, and Darvinsky reserve.
There are dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and sheep-breeding. Rye, wheat, oats, and fodder grasses are cultivated. There is flax growing. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 25.8% cereal crops; 1.0% industrial crops; 6.4% potatoes and vegetables; and 66.7% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.1 grain, 21.8 potatoes, and 25.1 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 329.8 cattle including 164.0 cows; and 184.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 171.5 grain; 422.9 potatoes; 148.3 vegetables; 55.9 meat; and 478.5 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 768 km railways, and 11472 km main roads. The Volga-Baltic water way, and Severo-Dvinskaya water system are used for navigation.

VORONEZHSKAYA OBLAST

Voronezhskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on June 13, 1934 with an area of 52,400 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 2,471,700 people, comprising: 93.4% Russians, 5.0% Ukrainians, and others 1.6%. The density of population is 47.2 per km2, the urban population 61.4%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 903,800 center Voronezh, 65,100 Borisoglebsk, 63,500 Rossosh', and 55,400 Liski.
The oblast is situated on both sides of the Don middle course. In the west there are slopes of Central Russian Upland, which is a strongly dissected plain (heights up to 268 m) with a dense network of gulches and balkas; in the east there is Oksko-Donskaya plain, in the south-east there is Kalachskaya upland. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -90C, and in July 200C. Precipitation is about 500 mm per year (the maximum is in summer). The southern part of the oblast is subject to dry winds. The vegetation season is about 185 days in the north and about 200 days in the south. Besides the Don with tributaries in the east the Khoper river flows.
The oblast is situated in the forest-steppe and steppe zones. Leached and typical chernozems in the north, ordinary chernizems in the south; in river flood-plains alluvial meadow soils, in balkas and gulches - chernozem meadow soils. Forests (oak, pine-tree, and maple) grow in river valleys and occupy 8% of the territory. Up to 70% of areas are ploughed up. The Voronezhsky and Khopersky reserves are situated on the territory of the oblast.
Barley, wheat, rye, sunflower, sugar beet; and fruit are cultivated. There are beef and dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding; and pure-strain horse-breeding (Orlov trotters, etc.). The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 50.8% cereal crops; 17.8% industrial crops; 5.2% potatoes and vegetables; and 26.1% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.06 grain, 4.6 potatoes, and 8.8 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 687.8 cattle including 332.1 cows; and 571.5 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1669.8 grain; 668.1 potatoes; 189.6 vegetables; 112.4 meat; and 784.7 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1189 km railways, and 9012 km main roads.

YAMALO-NENETS AUTONOMOUS OKRUG

Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug is a subject of the Russian Federation within Tyumenskaya Oblast. It is situated in the extreme north of Western Siberia, partially over Arctic Circle. It is opened to the Kara Sea and includes the adjoining islands. The okrug was established on December 10, 1930 with an area of 750,300 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 506,800 people, comprising: 4.2% Nenets, 1.5% Khantys, 0.3% Seljkups, 59.2% Russians, 17.2% Ukrainians, 5.3% Tatars, 2.6% Byelorussians, and others 9.7%. The population density is 0.7 per km2, the urban population 82.8%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 32,900 centre Salekhard; 98,500 Noyabrsk; 91,800 Novy Urengoi; and 47,100 Nadym.
The okrug is situated within the limits of West Siberian Plain. The relief is mainly low plain, in the west there are eastern slopes of the Polar Urals (up to 1499 m). The climate is extreme continental, sever. Winter lasts up to 9 months. The average temperatures are: in January from -22 to -260C, and in July 4-140C. Precipitation is 200-500 mm per year. Permafrost is widespread. The vegetative season is 50-100 days. The large rivers are Ob, Taz, Pur, Nadym, and Messoyakha; there are many lakes.
The okrug is situated in the tundra, forest-tundra and northern taiga zones. The soils are gleyzems, podzols, and peats. Sphagnum bogs are widespread. Pastures of domestic reindeer occupy about 46% of the territory. Forest massifs (larch, pine-tree, spruce, and cedar) are situated mainly in the southern part of the ukrug. The Verkhnetazovsky reserve is located there.
There are reindeer-breeding, fur bearing animals hunting, and cage fur farming; cattle-breeding is insignificant. There is also potatoes cultivation. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 74.0% potatoes and vegetables; and 26.0% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 9.5 potatoes, and 5.9 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 2.4 cattle including 1.2 cows; and 7.7 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 2.7 potatoes; 0.6 vegetables; 4.3 meat; and 3.5 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 495 km railways; and 797 km main roads. The Ob, Nadym, Pur, Taz and Northern Sea Route are used for navigation.

YAROSLAVSKAYA OBLAST

Yaroslavskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on March 11, 1936 with an area of 36,400 km2. According to the 1989 census the population amounts to 1,425,100 people, comprising: 96.4% Russians, and others 3.6%. The population density is 39.2 per km2, the urban population 80.4%. The largest cities (population by 01.01.1999) are: 616,100 center Yaroslavl; 242,600 Rybinsk; 45,700 Tutaev; 44,900 Pereslavl-Zalesski; 38,100 Uglich; and 36,100 Rostov.
There is a slightly hilly moraine, swamped in some areas plain, in the east replaced by vast lowlands. From southwest to northeast a belt of uplands up to 292 m extends. In the southeast there is margin of Klinsko-Dmitrovskaya ridge. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January -100C, and in July 180C. Precipitation is about 600 mm per year. The vegetative season is 165-170 days. The main river is Volga with tributaries. The largest lakes are Nero, Pleshcheevo; Rybinskoe, Kostromskoe, and there is the Uglichskoe reservoirs.
The oblast is situated in the southern taiga and mixed forests zones. The soils are mainly sod-podzolics, and light greys forest. In the north there are mainly spruce forests with addition of birch and aspen, in the south there are mixed forests of coniferous and broad-leaved species (ash-tree, maple, and oak). Forests occupy about half of the territory. The Pereslavsky Natural-Historical National Park, and Darvinski Reserve are located there.
There are beef-dairy stockbreeding, pig breeding, poultry rising, and sheep breeding. Rye, potatoes, vegetables, and fodder crops are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 27.6% cereal crops, 0.9% industrial crops; 5.5% potatoes and vegetables; and 66.0% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) was: 1.04 grain, 14.3 potatoes, and 32.8 vegetables. The total number of live-stock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 284.6 cattle including 136.3 cows; and 84.0 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 141.6 grain; 307.0 potatoes; 116.8 vegetables; 35.4 meat; and 354.4 milk.
The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 650 km railways, and 6221 km main roads. The Volga and Rybinskoe reservoir are used for navigation.

Top of Page