ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION
Sergei Tarkhov

According to the Constitution of 1993, the area of the Russian Federation is organized into 129 “subjects” (administrative-political units). They are:
· 21 republics (Altay, Bashkortostan, Buryatiya, Dagestan, Ingushetiya, Kabardino-Balkariya, Kalmykiya, Karachayevo-Cherkessiya, Kareliya, Komi, Mariy El, Mordoviya, Sakha [Yakutiya], Severnaya Osetiya – Alaniya, Tatarstan, Tyva, Udmurtiya, Khakasiya, Chechnya, Chuvashiya);
· 10 autonomous districts (Komi-Permyatskiy as a part of the Perm’ region; Nenetskiy as a part of Arkhangel’sk region; Khanty-Mansiyskiy and Yamalo-Nenetskiy as parts of the Tyumen’ region; Taymyrskiy (Dolgano-Nenetskiy) and Evenkiyskiy as parts of Krasnoyarsk krai; Ust’-Ordynskiy as a part of Irkutsk region; Aginskiy Buryatian as a part of Chita region; Koryakskiy as a part of Kamchatka region; and Chukotskiy district, which is independent of any region;
·         1 autonomous region (Yevreyskaya AO or Jewish);
·         6 krais or territories (Altayskiy, Krasnodar, Krasnoyarsk, Primorskiy, Stavropol’, Khabarovsk);
·         89 Oblast’ (or regions: see descriptions that follow);
·         2 federal cities (Moscow and St. Petersburg).

These subjects are subdivided into smaller units known as rayons or “ulus” in Sakha-Yakutiya. These countryside districts totalled 1,867 in 2000. There are 1,092 cities and towns; 1,875 posyoloks; and 24,470 villages.

The recent configuration of Russia’s administrative organization has been pegged to the end of the 1950s, when the last small regions (like Arzamas, Balashov, Velikiye Luki, Groznyi, Kamensk) were abandoned. The number of regions of the first level of hierarchy (region, republic, krai, and district) has been changed many times (from 89 in 1923 to 40 in 1930, 67 in 1934, 73 in 1940, and 89 in 1955). The former autonomous republics and autonomous regions became semi-independent republics in 1990–92. Chechnya-Ingushetiya republic was divided into two separate units in 1992 – Ingushetiya and Chechnya.

Since 13 May 2000, all subjects of the Russian Federation were united into seven federal districts:

·         Central (center – Moscow; 18 units; area is 650,700 square kilometers (km²); population – 37,142,300 inhabitants as of 1 January 2000);
·         Northwestern (St. Petersburg; 11 units; 1,677,900 km²; 14,515,000 inhabitants); Southern (Rostov-na-Donu; 13 units; 589,000 km²; 21,694,700 inhabitants);
·         Volga (Nizhniy Novgorod; 15 units; 1,038,000  km²; 32,017,800 inhabitants);
·         Urals (Yekaterinburg; 6 units; 1,788,900 km²; 12,603,200 inhabitants);
·         Siberian (Novosibirsk; 16 units; 5,114,800 km²; 20,792,500 inhabitants);
·         Far Eastern (Khabarovsk; 10 units; 6,215,900 km²; 7,159,400 inhabitants).

Each new federal district encompasses the following regions:

·         Central (Tsentral’nyi) federal district: regions Belgorod, Bryansk, Vladimir, Voronezh, Ivanovo, Kaluga, Kostroma, Kursk, Lipetsk, Moscow, Oryol, Ryazan’, Smolensk, Tambov, Tver’, Tula, Yaroslavl’ (covers the areas of Central and Central-Chernozem economic regions).

·         Northwestern (Severo-Zapadnyi) federal district: republics of Kareliya and Komi; regions Arkhangel’sk (with Nenetskiy autonomous district), Vologda, Kaliningrad, Leningrad, Murmansk, Novgorod, Pskov, and city of St. Petersburg (covers the areas of  Northwestern and Northern economic regions).

·Southern (Yuzhnyi) federal district: republics Adygeya, Dagestan, Ingushetiya, Kabardino-Balkariya, Kalmykiya, Karachayevo-Cherkessiya, Severnaya Osetiya – Alaniya, Chechnya; Krasnodar and Stavropol’ krais; regions Astrakhan’, Volgograd and Rostov (covers North Caucasus economic region and the southern part of Volga region).

·         Volga (Privolzhskiy) federal district: republics Bashkortostan, Mariy El, Mordoviya, Tatarstan, Udmurtiya, Chuvashiya; regions Kirov, Nizhniy Novgorod, Orenburg, Penza, Perm’ (with Komi-Permyatskiy autonomous district), Samara, Saratov and Ul’yanovsk (covers Volga, Volga-Vyatka and western part of Urals economic regions).

·         Urals (Ural’skiy) federal region: regions Kurgan, Sverdlovsk, Tyumen’ (with Khanty-Mansiyskiy and Yamalo-Nenetskiy autonomous districts), Chelyabinsk (covers the main part of Urals and northwestern part of Western Siberian economic regions).

·         Siberian (Sibirskiy) federal district: republics Altay, Buryatiya, Tyva, Khakasiya; krais Altayskiy and Krasnoyarsk (with Taymyrskiy and Evenkiyskiy autonomous districts); regions Irkutsk (with Ust’-Ordynskiy autonomous district). Kemerovo, Novosibirsk, Omsk, Tomsk, Chita (with Aginskiy Buryatian district). Covers the eastern part of West Siberian and the Eastern Siberian economic regions (without Sakha – Yakutiya).

·         Far Eastern (Dal’nevostochnyi) federal district: republic Sakha (Yakutiya), Yevreyskaya (Jewish) autonomous region, Chukotskiy autonomous district; Primorskiy and Khabarovsk krais; regions Amur, Kamchatka (with Koryakskiy autonomous district), Magadan, Sakhalin (covers Far Eastern economic region).

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SUBJECTS OF THE FEDERATION
Vladimir Kotlyakov

ADYGEI REPUBLIC

Adygei Republic is situated in the northwestern part of the Caucasus. Since 1918 it had been within Kuban-Chernomorskaya Soviet Republic, since 1922 it had been Adygei (Cherkessk) autonomous oblast, since 1928 it had been Adygei Autonomous Oblast, since 1991 it has become Adygei Republic. Its area is 7,600 square kilometers (km²). According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 449,300 people, comprising: 68.0% Russians, 22.1% Adygeis, 6.7% others, and 3.2% Ukrainians. The density of the population is 59.1 per km²; 54% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are the capital, Maikop (166,700) and Adygeisk (12,700).

The northern part of Adygeya is situated on the Prikuban Plain. The southern part is on the slopes of the Great Caucasus, whose heights reach 3,238 meters (m) (Chugush mountain). The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –2^oC, and in July 22^oC. Precipitation is about 700 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 150 days. Rivers relate to the Kuban basin; the large rivers are: the Laba, Belaya, and Chokhrak. In the low courses of some rivers there are plavs. The soils are mostly leached and compact chernozems as well as sod-calcareouses. Forests occupy about 40% of the territory (mainly in the mountainous part). Oak, beech, hornbeam, maple, ash and other broad-leaved species prevail. There are many wild fruit-berry trees. On the territory of the republic the main part of the Caucasus Reserve is located.

There are crops of wheat, corn, barley, tobacco, sunflower, sugar-beet, etc. Vegetable-growing, melon-growing, vine-growing, and gardening occur. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 40.4% cereal crops; 18.0% industrial crops; 10.2% potatoes, vegetables, melons, and gourds; 31.4% fodder crops. The average crop yields (in tons per hectare [tons/ha], 1995) were: 2.82 grains; 7.1 potatoes; 8.0 vegetables. Beef and dairy stockbreeding takes place. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 70.4 cattle, including 39.4 cows; and 30.9 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 148.6 grains; 91.0 potatoes; 56.2 vegetables; 13.8 meat; and 101.6 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 148 km railways and 1,509 km main roads. The Kuban river is used for navigation.

AGIN-BURYAT NATIONAL OKRUG

Agin-Buryat National Okrug is situated in the south of Transbaikalia. It was established on September 26, 1937. It is a subject of the Russian Federation within Chita Oblast with an area of 19,000 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 79,100 people: 54.9% Buryats, 40.8% Russians, and 4.3% others. The population density is 4.2 per km²; 32% of the population is urban. The capital is Aginskoe settlement (9,400 people counted as of 01.01.1999).

The terrain is mostly mountainous, and climbs as high as 1,663 m in the western part. The south is a slightly rolling plain. The climate is extreme continental. Winter is cold, with little snow; the average temperature in January is –24^oC. Summer is warm; the average temperature in July is 18^oC. Precipitation is about 400 mm per year. The vegetative season is 90–150 days. The main river is the Onon; in the south there are many small lakes. The soils in the mountains are podzolized, cryomorphic taiga, and grey forest, on the plains they are carbonate, chestnut, and chernozemic. There are many solonchaks. The vegetation is steppe (sagebrush/feather-grass steppes) and forest-steppe; in the mountains, it is mountain-taiga (with larch [Larix daurica] prevailing). Forests occupy 30% of the territory.

Fine-fleeced sheep-breeding prevails. Cattle (dairy trend)-, pig-, and horse-breeding occur, as well as poultry-raising. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 71.0 cattle, including 27.2 cows; and 21.8 pigs. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 84.1% cereal crops; 0.4% industrial crops; 4.0% potatoes and vegetables; and 11.4% fodder crops. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 29.5 grains; 6.8 potatoes; 2.4 vegetables; 8.1 meat; and 37.0 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 71 km railways and 903 km main roads.

ALTAI KRAI

Altai Krai is situated in the southeast West Siberian plain and borders Kazakhstan. It was established on September 28, 1937 with an area of 169,100 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 2,664,800 people: 89.5% Russians, 4.8% Germans, 2.9% Ukrainians, and 2.8% others. Population density is 15.8 per km²; 52.4% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Barnaul, 583,000; Biysk, 224,800; and Rubtsovsk, 163,900.

In the central part of the krai flows the river Ob. Eastward of it there are foothills and slopes of Salairsky Ridge; westward are the Kulundinskaya plain and Priobskoe plateau. The climate is continental. Winter is cold, with little snow; the average temperature in January is –19^oC. Summer is short and warm; the average temperature in July is 19^oC. Precipitation is 250-300 mm per year. The vegetative season is 160–170 days. A great part of the territory is irrigated by the Ob and its tributaries – Biya and Katun-basin; the other rivers belong to a closed drainage area of Kulundinskaya steppe basin. The large lakes are Kulundinskoe and Kuchukskoe.

Altai Krai is situated in the steppe and forest-steppe zones. The soils are mostly chernozems and pine forest sands; the major part of the steppe is plowed up. Pine forests and birch kolkis are preserved.

There is a large production of grain, milk, and meat. Sunflower, sugar-beet, and flax are cultivated, as is fruit. There are sheep-breeding, poultry-raising, bee-keeping, spotted deer- and maral-breeding. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 64.4% cereal crops, 5.7% industrial crops; 2.1% potatoes and vegetables; and 27.8% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.9 grains; 10.9 potatoes; and 15.1 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 1,040.2 cattle, including 486.8 cows; and 516.8 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 3,073.7 grains; 761.2 potatoes; 186.9 vegetables; 124.4 meat; and 1,059.7 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,803 km railways, and 14,267 km main roads (the most important is Chuisky highway from Biysk to Mongolia). The Ob is used for navigation.

AMURSKAYA OBLAST

Amurskaya Oblast is situated in the south of the Far East; it borders China. It was established on October 20, 1932 with an area of 363,700 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,007,700 people: 86.8% Russians, 6.7% Ukrainians, and 6.5% others. The population density is 2.8 per km²; 65.7% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Blagoveschensk, 219,600; Belogorsk, 74,500; Svobodny, 71,800; and Tynda, 48,000.

The oblast is situated between Stanovoi range (heights up to 2,313 m) in the north and the Amur river in the south. The topography is mostly mountainous; parallel with Stanovoi range there is a chain of ranges. In the north and south there are plains. The climate is effected by monsoons. Winter is dry, cold, cloudless with little snow. The average temperature in January is from –24^oC in the south to –33^oC in the north. Summer is hot (in the south) and rainy. The average temperature in July is from 21^oC in the south to 18⁰C in the north. Precipitation is about 850 mm per year. Permafrost is widespread. The vegetative season is 125–170 days. A great part of the territory is drained by the left tributaries of the Amur; the largest of these are Zeya (with Selemdzha) and Bureya. In the northwest there are rivers of the Lena basin (Olekma with Nyukzha tributary), and in the northeast there are rivers of the Uda (the Maya) basin.

The oblast is situated in the zones of taiga, mixed, and broad-leaved forests. The soils are brown forest, including podzolized and alluvial-gley, mountain brown taiga, and mountain taiga permafrost. In the south of the oblast are located chernozem-like meadows rich in humus. Forests (the main species is larch) occupy 62.5% of the territory. A considerable area of plains is occupied by maris. The Zeisky and Khingansky Reserves are located on the territory of the oblast.

Crops of soya-beans, potatoes, fodder crops, and vegetables are grown. Beef and dairy stockbreeding, poultry-raising, bee-keeping, reindeer-breeding (in the north), and fur farming are represented. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 40.1% cereal crops; 25.4% industrial crops; 4.1% potatoes and vegetables; and 30.4% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.65 grains; 11.7 potatoes; and 15.2 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 157.1 cattle, including 77.9 cows; and 108.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 were: 304.8 grains; 347.8 potatoes; 102.3 vegetables; 21.8 meat; and 203.3 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 2,982 km railways (Transsiberian and Baikaloamurskaya main lines) and 6,807 km main roads. The Amur, Zeya, Bureya rivers, etc. are used for navigation.

ARKHANGELSKAYA OBLAST

Arkhangelskaya Oblast is situated in the north of European Russia; it is washed by the White and Barents Seas. It was established on September 23, 1937. Nenets Autonomous Okrug, being a subject of the Russian Federation, forms a part of the oblast. Its area is 587,400 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,478,000 people: 92.1% Russians, 3.4% Ukrainians, 4.0% others, and 0.5% peoples of the North. The population density is 2.5 per km²; 73.2% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Arkhangelsk, 367,200; Severodvinsk, 237,000; Kotlas, 66,500; Novodvinsk, 48,700; and Koryazhma, 44,400.

The oblast is situated in the north of the East European Plain. In the central and southern parts there is a rolling plain with plateau-like upland, in the northwest and north there are chains of hills as high as 471 m, and in the northeast there is Pai-Khoi range. Eastward of Timansky Ridge there is a vast swamped Petchorskaya Lowland, the major part of which is occupied by Bolshezemelskaya and Malozemelskaya tundras; in its central part there are morainic ridges. Almost all rivers relate to the Arctic Ocean basin, the largest are Severnaya Dvina (with tributaries Vychegda, Pinega, Vaga), Onega, Mezen, and Pechora; there are about 2,500 lakes there. The climate is temperate continental; in the northeast it is subarctic, with a cool summer and a cold long winter. The average temperature in January falls from the west to the east from –12^o to –18^oC, in July – from the south to the north from 16^o to 8^oC. Precipitation is 300–500 mm per year. On the coast of the White Sea, fogs are frequent. In the north of the oblast permafrost is widespread. The vegetative season is from 10 days in the northeast to 110 days in the south.

The northeastern part of the oblast is situated in the tundra zone. The soils are peat and peaty podzolic gleys, gleyic podzols, and high moor peats. In the forest-tundra zone light forests combine with treeless tundra areas; peat gley and slightly podzolic soils prevail. Forests occupy about half of the oblast territory and belong to the northern and middle taiga. The main species are spruce, pine, larch, and fir. The soils are mainly gley podzolic, peat bog, podzolic, and hydromorphic podzolic. On the territory of the oblast are located the Vodlozersky and Kenozersky National Parks, and the Pinezhsky Reserve.

There is beef and dairy stockbreeding (highly productive kholmogorskaya breed); as well as the breeding of pigs, sheep, and goats, poultry-raising, and reindeer-breeding (in the north). The fur farming (polar fox, mink) and sea-hunting industries are also present. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 12.1% cereal crops; 12.7% potatoes and vegetables; and 75.2% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.79 grains; 16.6 potatoes; and 17.2 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 149.0 cattle, including 74.3 cows; and 30.2 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 16.6 grains; 419.6 potatoes; 79.2 vegetables; 22.2 meat; and 190.0 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,764 km railways and 6,894 km main roads. The Severnaya Dvina and its tributaries are used for navigation.

ASTRAKHANSKAYA OBLAST

Astrakhanskaya Oblast is situated on Prikaspiyskaya Lowland at the inflow of the Volga into the Caspian Sea. It was established on December 27, 1943 with an area of 44,100 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,019,500 people: 72.0% Russians, 12.8% Kazakhs, 8.0% others, and 7.2% Tatars. The population density is 23.1 per km²; 67.0% of the population is urban The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Astrakhan, 483,700; Akhtubinsk, 49,000; and Znamensk, 36,100.

The surface is mainly flat, but features heights up to 150 m (Bolshoe Bogdo mountain); it is partially situated below sea level. On the Volgo-Akhtubinskaya floodplain there are near-channel grivas, high sandy Ridges, many arms, and bayou lakes. The climate is extreme continental, arid. The average temperatures are: in January –6^oC, and in July about 25^oC. Precipitation is about 200 mm per year. The vegetative season is 200–215 days. At its mouth the Volga divides into numerous branches; in the floodplain and delta there are many freshwater lakes. There are many salt lakes, the largest one is Baskunchak.

The oblast is situated in the semi-desert zone. The soils are solonetzic and solonchacous browns, meadow alluvials, and sands. In the vegetative cover, cereals, sagebrush, and solyanki (Salsola) prevail. In the Volgo-Akhtubinskaya floodplain and delta of the Volga there are meadows, floodplain forests, and reed brushwood. The Astrakhan Reserve is located there.

Cereal crops (mainly rice), vegetables (tomato, etc.), melons (watermelons on irrigated lands of Volgo-Akhtubinskaya floodplain), corn, etc. are cultivated. Sheep are bred for meat and wool, and beef/dairy stockbreeding occurs. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 57.0% cereal crops; 1.1% industrial crops; 23.9% potatoes and vegetables; and 18.0% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.67 grains; 5.8 potatoes; 9.1 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 153.6 cattle, including 69.0 cows; and 29.0 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 43.5 grains; 87.1 potatoes; 153.2 vegetables; 19.6 meat; and 106.0 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 567 km railways and 2,598 km main roads.The Volga river is used for navigation.

BELGORODSKAYA OBLAST

Belgorodskaya Oblast is situated in the southwest of European Russia; it borders the Ukraine. It was established on 6 January 1954 with an area of 27,100 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,489,500 people: 92.9% Russians, 5.5% Ukrainians, and 1.6% others. The population density is 55.0 per km²; 64.4% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Belgorod, 336,900; Ctary Oskol, 211,200; Gubkin, 85,300; Shebekino, 46,200; Alekseevka, 38,500; and Valuiki, 35,000.

The oblast is located in the southwest of the Central Russian Upland (heights up to 276 m), a gently rolling erosion plain. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –8^oC, and in July 20^oC. Precipitation is about 500 mm per year. The vegetative season is 180–190 days. There are rivers of the Don basin (Seversky Donets, Oskol, Tikhaya Sosna), and the Dnieper (Vorskla). The oblast is situated in the forest-steppe zone; there are steppes in the south. The soils are mostly podzolized chernozems, leached and typical. In the southeast are found ordinary chernozems; in the northeast, grey forest soils predominate; in river valleys, alluvial soils are found. Forests occupy 10% of the territory: oak, ash, and maple. The Les na Vorskle and the Central-Chernozem Reserves are located there.

Barley, wheat, sugar-beet, and sunflower are cultivated. Fruit growing takes place, as do beef/dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and poultry-raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 44.4% cereal crops; 14.1% industrial crops, 5.3% potatoes and vegetables; and 35.9% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.38 grains; 6.6 potatoes; and 8.8 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 465.2 cattle, including 226.2 cows; and 490.1 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1,125.7 grains; 569.7 potatoes; 153.1 vegetables; 92.2 meat; and 604.2 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 696 km railways and 6,315 km main roads.

BRYANSKAYA OBLAST

Bryanskaya Oblast is situated in the west of European Russia; it borders Byelorussia and the Ukraine. It was established on 5 July 1944 with an area of 34,900 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,451,000 people: 96.0% Russians and 4.0% others. The population density is 41.6 per km²; 68.2% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Bryansk, 457,000; Klintsy, 68,500; Novozybkov 43,500; and Dyadjkovo, 34,600.

Extremely dissected high erosional plains with altitudes up to 288 m (the western part of Central Russian and Smolenskaya Uplands) combine with flat moraine-outwash plains of Pridnestrovskaya low land. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –7^oC, and in July 18^oC. Precipitation is about 600 mm per year (the maximum in summer). The vegetative season is about 180 days.

The oblast is situated in the south-taiga and subtaiga natural zones, the extreme southeastern part – in the forest-steppe zone. The soils are mostly sod-podzolic; grey forest predominates in the southeast. Pine and birch forests occupy about 40% of the territory. The Bryansky Les Reserve is located there.

Rye, barley, oats, wheat, sugar-beet, flax-fiber, hemp, and hops are cultivated. There are beef/dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and poultry-raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 42.0% cereal crops; 0.6% industrial crops; 10.7% potatoes and vegetables; and 46.6% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.11 grains; 11.0 potatoes; and 11.2 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 358.6 cattle, including 195.5 cows; and 218.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 433.1 grains; 1,161.2 potatoes; 196.5 vegetables; 68.9 meat; and 507.9 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,037 km railways and 5,939 km main roads. The Desna river is used for navigation.

CHECHEN REPUBLIC

Chechen Republic is situated in the south of European Russia. In 1922 Chechen Autonomous Oblast was established, in 1924 Ingush Autonomous Oblast was established, and in 1934 they were united into Checheno-Ingush Autonomous Oblast (since 1936 the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic – ASSR). In 1944 Checheno-Ingush ASSR was abolished, and reestablished in 1957. The area (together with the Republic of Ingushetia) is 19,300 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 780,500 people: 66.0% Chechens, 24.8% Russians, 6.9% others, and 2.3% Ingushs. The population density is 56.9 per km²; 36.8% of the population is urban. The capital is Grozny.

The republic is situated in the central part of the northern slope of the Great Caucasus (heights up to 4,493 m) adjoining Chechenskaya Plain and Tersko-Kumskaya Lowland. The climate is continental. The average temperatures in January are from –3^oC on Tersko-Kumskaya Lowland down to –12^oC in the mountains; in July they are 25^o and 21^oC, respectively. Precipitation is 300–1,000 mm. The vegetative season (on Tersko-Kumskaya Lowland) is 190 days. The large rivers are Terek and Sunzha, with its tributary Argun.

The soils on the plain are mainly meadow, chestnut, and light chestnut; on high areas they are leached chernozems; in river valleys they are alluvial and meadow-swamp, and in mountains they are mountain-forest and mountain-meadow. On Tersko-Kumskaya Lowland there is sagebrush/solyanki (Salsola) vegetation; on moist areas there is tipchak (Festuca sulcata)/feather-grass steppe. On Chechenskaya plain there is steppe and forest-steppe vegetation. In the mountains at heights up to 2,200 m there are broad-leaved forests; at higher elevations, subalpine and alpine meadows exist. Fruit and vine growing, and cultivation of vegetables and cereal crops occur. Fine-fleeced sheep-breeding, poultry-raising, and cattle-breeding are present.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 304 km railways and 3,057 km main roads.

CHELYABINSKAYA OBLAST

Chelyabinskaya Oblast is situated in the Southern Urals and Zauralje. It was established on January 17, 1934. In the southeast it borders Kazakhstan. Its area is 87,900 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 3,678,200 people: 81.0% Russians, 6.2% Tatars, 4.5% Bashkirs, 3.0% Ukrainians, and 5.3% others. The population density is 41.8 per km²; 81.3% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Chelyabinsk, 1,085,800; Magnitogorsk, 427,000; Zlatoust; 198,700; Miass, 166,200; Ozersk, 88,900; Troitsk, 85,000; and Kopeisk, 73,200.

The oblast is situated mainly on the eastern slopes of the Southern Urals and adjoining spaces of Zauralje. The western part has ridge-hilly topography, the eastern part is plain with gentle grivas. The climate is continental. Winter is cold and long; the average temperatures in January are from –1^o down to –18^oC. Summer is warm (hot in the southeast); the average temperatures in July are from 17^o to 20^oC. Precipitation is from 300 mm on plains up to 600 mm in the mountains per year. The vegetative season is 130–150 days. The main rivers are the Ural and the Miass. There are many freshwater and salt lakes.

The oblast is situated in the forest-steppe and northern steppes zone. The soils are mainly chernozems and grey forest. In the north there are aspen/birch and pine forests. The central part is forest-steppe, and the south is forb-cereal steppe. In the mountains there are spruce. Fir forests predominate, with participation of pine, larch, lime, and oak. Forests occupy over 25% of the territory. The Zyuratkulj and Taganai National Parks and the Iljmensky Reserve are located there.

Dairy/beef and beef/wool stockbreeding occur, as does poultry-raising. Wheat and pea crops, as well as vegetables, are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 63.6% cereal crops, 0.7% industrial crops; 3.1% potatoes and vegetables; and 32.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha) in 1995 were: 0.58 grains; 6.8 potatoes; and 11.6 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 620.6 cattle, including 289.8 cows; and 332.3 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 642.2 grains; 367.5 potatoes; 134.0 vegetables; 106.7 meat; and 666.1 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,793 km railways and 8,108 km main roads.

CHITINSKAYA OBLAST

Chitinskaya Oblast is situated in Zabaikalje. It was established on September 26, 1937 with an area of 431,500 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,265,900 people: 88.4% Russians, 4.8% Buryats, 4.0% others, and 2.8% Ukrainians. The population density is 2.9 per km²; 62.7% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Chita, 311,100; Krasnokamensk, 56,200; and Borzya, 31,600.

Mountain ranges of medium height (Yablonovy, Cherskogo, Borshchovochny, Daursky, etc.) and intermontane basins dividing them prevail. In the north, in Kodar range, there are mountains up to 3,072 m. In the south there is the vast Priononskaya Plain. The climate is extreme continental. Winter is sunny, dry, and frosty; the average temperatures in January are from –26^o down to –33^oC. Summer is very warm and short; the average temperature in July is from 17^o to 21^oC. Precipitation is 120–400 mm per year. Permafrost is widespread. The vegetative season is 120-160 days. The main rivers are Shilka and Argunj (sources of the Amur), Khilok and Chikoi (the Selenga tributaries), and Olekma and Vitim (the Lena tributaries). There are many large lakes.

The oblast is situated in the central taiga and steppe zones. The soils are mainly mountain-taiga podzolic; in steppes, chernozems and chestnut are found; in intermontane basins, soils are meadow-permafrost and meadow-chernozem. Over half of the area is occupied by mountain-taiga forests (larch [Larix daurica], pine, cedar, birch); in the south on basin bottoms there are cereal-forb steppes. The Daursky and Sokhondinsky Reserves are located there.

Fine-fleeced sheep-breeding and cattle-breeding occur. Reindeer-breeding takes place in the north, along with the hunting of fur-bearing animals. Wheat, oats, and barley are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 76.7% cereal crops; 0.7% industrial crops; 5.9% potatoes and vegetables; and 16.8% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.74 grains; 7.7 potatoes; and 11.5 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 477.4 cattle, including 195.7 cows; and 156.4 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 235.9 grains; 151.6 potatoes; 49.5 vegetables; 58.3 meat; 305.1 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 239.9 km railways and 9,626 km main roads. The Shilka river is used for navigation.

CHUKCHI AUTONOMOUS OKRUG

Chukchi Autonomous Okrug is situated in the extreme northeast of Russia. It occupies part of the mainland, Chukchi peninsula, and a number of islands. It is washed by the East Siberian, Chukchi, and Bering Seas. A considerable part of the okrug is situated over the Arctic Circle. It was established on December 10, 1930 with an area of 27,700 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 83,100 people: 66.1% Russians, 16.8% Ukrainians, 9.8% others, and 7.3% Chukchi. The population density is 0.1 per km²; 70.4% of the population is urban. The administrative center is Anadyr (13,000 people as of 01.01.1999).

In the northeast there is Chukotskoe Highland (up to 1,843 m); in the central part, there is Anadyrskoe Tableland, and in the southeast, Anadyrskaya Lowland. The climate is severe; on coasts it is marine, in inner regions it is extreme continental. Winter lasts up to 10 months. The average temperatures in January are from –15^o down to –39^oC, and 2^o to 13^oC in July. Precipitation is 200–500 mm per year. The vegetative season in the southern part of the okrug is 80–100 days. Permafrost is widespread. The large rivers are Anadyr, Velikaya, Amguema, Omolon, Bolshoi, and Maly Anyui. There are many lakes.

The okrug is situated in the forest-tundra, tundra, and arctic deserts zones. The soils are mainly mountain-tundra and peat gley; peat podzolic and alluvial occur. Tundra vegetation prevails. On the upper mountain slopes and on Vrangel Island there are Arctic deserts. In the Anadyr and other large rivers basins there are insular forests (larch, poplar, willow, birch, alder). The Ostrov Vrangelya Reserve is located there.

Here occur reindeer-breeding, hunting of fur-bearing animals, dairy stockbreeding, poultry-raising, pig-breeding, cage fur farming, and hotbed-greenhouse farming. In 1998, 100% of the cultivated land was occupied by potatoes and vegetables. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 6.3 potatoes and 12.5 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 0.2 cattle, including 0.1 cows; and 0.7 pigs.The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 0.1 potatoes; 0.1 vegetables; 0.6 meat; and 0.2 milk.

The length of main roads in 1998 was 652 km.

CHUVASH REPUBLIC

Chuvash Republic is situated in the east of European Russia. It was established on July 24, 1920 as Chuvash Autonomous Oblast, on April 21, 1925 it was transformed into Chuvash Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic – ASSR; since 1990 it is Chuvash Republic. Its area is 18,300 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,361,800 people: 67.8% Chuvashs, 26.7% Russians, 2.8% others, and 2.7% Tatars. The population density is 74.4 per km²; 60.4% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Cheboksary, 458,500; Novocheboksarsk, 124,700; and Kanash, 54,900.

The republic is situated on the East European Plain in the middle course of the Volga. On the right bank there is Privolzhskaya Upland (heights up to 266 m) with Chuvashskoe Plateau, precipitous toward the Volga, greatly dissected by ravines and balkas. On the left bank there is a low plain with bogs and peatbogs. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –13^oC, and in July 19^oC. Precipitation is 450–500 mm per year. The vegetative season is 180 days. The main river is the Volga, with tributaries Sura, Tsivilj, and Anish. Cheboksarskoe Reservoir exists here, as do bayou and karst lakes.

The republic is situated in the broad-leaved forest zone. The soils are grey forest and sod-podzolics. Forests (pine, spruce, birch, oak, lime) occupy 32% of the territory. The Chuvash Varmane and Prisursky Reserves are located there.

There is beef/dairy stockbreeding. Wheat, rye, oats, barley, hemp, and sugar-beet are cultivated. Cattle-breeding, pig-breeding, and poultry-raising are also present. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 47.0% cereal crops, 0.2% industrial crops; 10.4% potatoes and vegetables; and 42.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.38 grains; 14.6 potatoes; and 11.8 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 356.8 cattle, including 186.4 cows; and 298.3 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 458.7 grains; 839.0 potatoes; 111.7 vegetables; 66.7 meat; and 536.0 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 397 km railways and 4,317 km main roads. The Volga and Sura are used for navigation.

EVENKI AUTONOMOUS OKRUG

Evenki Autonomous Okrug is a subject of the Russian Federation situated within the Krasnoyarsky Krai. It is located in Eastern Siberia. It was established on December 10, 1930 with an area of 767,600 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 19,400 people: 67.5% Russians, 14.0% Evenks, 9.4% others, 5.3% Ukrainians, and 3.8% Yakuts. The population density is 0.03 people per km²; 29.5% of the population is urban. The administrative center is Tura, a town-type settlement.

The okrug is situated within the Central Siberian Plateau (heights up to 1,701 m on Putorana Plateau). The surface is greatly dissected. About a quarter of the territory is situated over the Arctic Circle, permafrost is widespread. The climate is extreme continental. Winter is long and severe, summer is short and warm. The average temperatures are: in January from –26^o down to –36^oC, and in July from 13^o to 15^oC. Precipitation is about 400 mm per year. The vegetative season is 60–115 days. The main rivers are Nizhnyaya and Podkamennaya Tunguskas (the Enisei basin). There are many lakes.

A major part of the okrug is situated in the northern and central taiga zones. The soils are mainly mountain-forest podzolic: in the northwest they are mountain-tundra, in the south, they are derno-podzolic. In the southern forests the main species are larch, spruce, and cedar; in the north, larch prevails; even further north, larch elfin woodland and areas of moss/lichens tundra take over. The Putoransky and Tungussky Reserves are located there.

The hunting of fur-bearing animals, reindeer-breeding, and fur farming all take place. Cattle-breeding, pig-breeding, and horse-breeding are insignificant. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 90.1% potatoes and vegetables; and 9.9% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 11.7 potato and 22.0 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 1.1 cattle, including 0.5 cows; and 0.5 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 0.7 potatoes; 0.4 vegetables; 0.1 meat; and 0.9 milk.

The length of main roads in 1998 was 17 km. The Nizhnyaya and Podkamennaya Tunguskas are used for navigation.

IRKUTSKAYA OBLAST

Irkutskaya Oblast is situated in Eastern Siberia, westward of Baikal Lake. It includes a subject of the Russian Federation: the Ust-Orda Buryat Autonomous Area. It was established on 26 September 1937 with an area of 767,900 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 2,758,200 people: 88.5% Russians, 5.3% others, 3.5% Ukrainians, and 2.7% Buryats. The population density is 3.6 per km²; 79.4% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Irkutsk, 592,400; Angarsk, 266,400; Bratsk, 254,500; Ust-Ilimsk, 106,600; and Usolje-Sibirskoe, 104,100.

The oblast is situated in the southeast of the Central Siberian Plateau, fringed in the south by the Vostochny Sayan (heights up to 2,875 m) and ranges of Pribaikalje. In the northeast there are Severo-Baikalskoe and Patomskoe highlands. The surface of the plateau is strongly dissected by deeply incised river valleys. The climate is continental. Winter is dry and frosty. The average temperatures in January are from –15^oC in the south to –33^oC in the north. Summer is hot and dry in the first half, with rains in July-August. The average temperatures in July are from 17^o to 19^oC. Precipitation ranges from about 400 mm per year in the northwestern and western mountain slopes up to 800 mm. The vegetative season is 116-127 days. The River network belongs to the Enisei basin (Angara, Nizhnyaya Tunguska) and the Lena (Vitim, Kirenga); Baikal Lake is situated there.

The oblast is situated in the southern taiga zone. Sod carbonate and derno-podzolic soils are widespread; in the southern forest-steppe part, grey forest and chernozemic soils prevail. Forests (Siberian larch, pine, Siberian cedar) occupy more than 75% of the territory. The Pribaikalsky National Park, as well as the Baikalo-Lensky and Vitimsky Reserves, are located there.

In the southern part of the oblast cereal crops (wheat, oats) and fodder crops are cultivated. There are beef/dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, and poultry-raising. In the north occur reindeer-breeding, hunting of fur-bearing animals, and fur farming. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 52.8% cereal crops; 0.1% industrial crops; 6.4% potatoes and vegetables; and 40.6% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.27 grains; 14.5 potatoes; and 14.3 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 440.9 cattle, including 205.5 cows; and 312.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 741.9 grains; 903.4 potatoes; 150.6 vegetables; 76.6 meat; and 495.3 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 2,481 km railways (the most important – Transsiberian and Baikalo-Amurskaya main lines) and 11,929 km main roads. The Angara, Lena, and Vitim rivers and Baikal Lake are used for navigation.

IVANOVSKAYA OBLAST

Ivanovskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on January 14, 1929 with an area of 21,800 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,232,300 people: 95.8% Russians and 4.2% others. The population density is 56.5 per km²; 82.8% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Ivanovo, 460,700; Kineshma, 99,600; Shuya, 67,200; Vichuga, 45,800, and Furmanov, 41,800.

The oblast is situated in the central part of the East European Plain, in the interstream of the Volga and the Klyazma. It is low, and in some places slightly rolling, plain. In the northwest there is a ridge of moraine uplands with heights up to 196 m, in the southeast and on the left bank of the Volga there are lowlands. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –12^oC, and in July 18^oC. Precipitation is about 600 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 110–140 days. The main river is the Volga, and in the south, the left tributaries of the Klyazma. Many small lakes exist here, as does the Gorkovskoe Reservoir. The oblast is situated in the southern-taiga zone. The soils are sod-podzolics, and light-grey forest. Forests (birch, spruce, aspen, ash) occupy about 43% of the territory.

There are beef/dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, and poultry-raising. Wheat, rye, oats, and barley are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 38.7% cereal crops; 1.3% industrial crops; 6.1% potatoes and vegetables; and 53.9% fodder crops The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.18 grains; 12.6 potatoes; and 13.7 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 190.8 cattle, including 95.6 cows; and 67.7 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 132.6 grains; 163.6 potatoes; 53.7 vegetables; 28.6 meat; and 257.3 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 341 km railways and 3,423 km main roads. The Volga, Klyazma, Teza, and Unzha are used for navigation.

JEWISH AUTONOMOUS REGION

 Jewish Autonomous Region is situated in Priamurye; it borders China. It was established on May 7, 1934 with an area of 36,000 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 200,900 people: 83.2% Russians, 7.4% Ukrainians, 5.2% others, and 4.2% Jews. The administrative center is Birobidzhan, with a population amounting to 80,800 people (counted as of 01.01.1999).

In the north and northwest there are mountain ranges, including offshoots of Bureinsky range (height up to 1,207 m); in the south and southeast is the Sredne-Amurskaya lowland, which is very swamped in some areas. The climate is temperate monsoon. Winter is cold and dry, with little snow. The average temperatures in January are from –21^oC in the extreme south down to –26^oC in the mountains. Summer is warm and humid; the average temperatures in July range from 18^o to 21^oC. Precipitation per year is from 500 mm on the plain up to 800 mm in the mountains. The vegetative season on the plain is 170–175 days. The main river is the Amur, with tributaries Bidzhan, Bira, and Tunguska.

The oblast is situated in the subtaiga and broad-leaved forest zones. Brown forest soils, often podzolized, prevail; meadow-swamp and peat gley soils predominate in the east. Forests (the main species are oak, Mongolian oak, Korean cedar, Ayanskaya spruce, larch, and birch) occupy 36% of the territory. Considerable areas eastward of the Bira River are occupied by maris and bogs. Meadows of the Amur floodplain are of great economic importance.

Dairy stockbreeding and poultry-raising are developed. Potatoes, vegetables, soy-bean, and fodder grain are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 46.4 cereal crops; 31.2 industrial crops; 11.9 potatoes and vegetables; and 10.5 fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.78 grains; 8.8 potatoes; and 5.4 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 23.4 cattle, including 11.4 cows; and 16.7 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 39.3 grains; 71.1 potatoes; 19.8 vegetables; 3.6 meat; and 24.2 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 312 km railways (the most important – Transsiberian main line) and 1,593 km main lines. The Amur River is used for navigation.

KABARDINO-BALKARIAN REPUBLIC

Kabardino-Balkarian Republic is situated in the south of European Russia; it borders Georgia. On 1 September 1921, it was established as Kabardinskaya Autonomous Oblast (since 1922 Kabardino-Balkarian); on December 5, 1936 it was transformed into an Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic – ASSR. Since 1991 it has been the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic with an area of 12,500 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 786,300 people: 48.2% Kabardins, 32% Russians, 10.4% others, and 9.4% Balkarians. The population density is 62.9 per km²; 57.6% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Nalchik, 230,800 and Prokhladny, 59,600.

The republic is situated on the northern slopes and foothills of the central part of the Great Caucasus with heights up to 5,642 m (the height of Elbrus mountain, which is the highest top in Russia). In the north there is Kabardinskaya Plain. The climate is continental. The average temperatures are: in January from –4^oC on the plain to –12^oC in the mountains, in July from 4^o to 23^oC, respectively. Precipitation is 500–2,000 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 150 days. The main river is Terek with tributaries Malka, Baksan, Chegem, and Cherek.

The plain is situated in the steppe and forest-steppe zones and is almost completely plowed up. Soils on the plain are chernozems and dark chestnut, on mountain slopes they are mountain meadow. Forests occupy about 10% of the territory, in floodplains there are hardwood forests. In the mountains the altitudinal zonality is well pronounced: at the heights of 800–1,600 m there are broad-leaved forests (mainly beech), up to 2,200 m there are coniferous forests (mainly pine), at the heights of 2,000–2,400 m there are subalpine meadows, and higher there are alpine meadows. The Prielbrusje National Park and the Kabardinio-Balkarsky Reserve are located there.

Cereal (wheat, corn, millet) and industrial (sunflower, hemp) crops are cultivated; stockbreeding of dairy and dairy/beef trends are being developed. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 45.0% cereal crops; 8.8% industrial crops; 7.5% potatoes, vegetables, melon and gourd; and 38.7% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 2.76 grains; 7.3 potatoes; and 7.2 vegetables. There are cattle-breeding, sheep-breeding, pig-breeding, and poultry-raising. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 225.6 cattle, including 99.8 cows; and 32.2 pigs. Pure-strain horse-breeding, bee-keeping, and silkworm-breeding take place. Vine and fruit growing are present. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 215.0 grains; 100.9 potatoes; 111.8 vegetables; 21.7 meat; and 235.6 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 133 km railways and 2,851 km main roads.

KALININGRADSKAYA OBLAST

Kaliningradskaya Oblast is situated in the extreme west of Russia; it borders Poland and Lithuania and is washed by the Baltic Sea. The oblast was established on 7 April 1946 with an area of 15,100 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 951,300 people: 78.5% Russians, 8.5% Byelorussians, 7.2% Ukrainians, 3.7% others, and 2.1% Lithuanians. The population density is 63.0 per km²; 77.7% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Kaliningrad, 426,500; Sovetsk, 44,200; Chernyakhovsk, 43,300; Baltijsk, 31,600; and Gusev, 28,200.

The territory is mainly low; in the southeast lies the Baltic Ridge, with heights up to 230 m. The climate is transitional, from marine to temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January from –3^o to –5^oC, and in July from 15^o to 17^oC. Precipitation is about 700 mm per year. The vegetative season is 180–200 days. The large rivers are the Neman and Pregolya; there are many lakes.

The oblast is situated in the mixed forests zone. The soils are sod-podzolics and brownzems; they are considerably cultivated. Forests (oak, spruce, pine, birch, lime) occupy about 15% of the territory. The Kurshskaya Kosa National Park is located there.

There are dairy and beef/dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and poultry-raising. Rye, wheat, barley, oats, roots, corn, and grasses are cultivated. Fur farming is present. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 43.2% cereal crops; 1.4% industrial crops; 6.4% potatoes and vegetables; and 49.1% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.61 grains; 8.5 potatoes; and 14.1 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 170.3 cattle, including 76.6 cows; and 99.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 73.5 grains; 167.1 potatoes; 60.6 vegetables; 32.0 meat; and 238.5 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 570 km railways and 4,567 km main roads. The Neman and the Pregolya Rivers are used for navigation.

KALUZHSKAYA OBLAST

Kaluzhskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on 5 July 1944 with an area of 29,900 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,087,500 people: 93.8% Russians, 3.4% others, and 2.8% Ukrainians. The population density is 36.4 per km²; 73.4% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Kaluga, 341,300; Obninsk, 108,100; Lyudinovo, 44,000; Kirov, 40,600; and Maloyaroslavets, 30,400.

In the west and the northwest there is Smolensko-Moskovskaya Upland with heights up to 279 m, in the east there is Central Russian Upland; the topography is erosional. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –10^oC, and in July 17^oC. Precipitation is up to 650 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 180 days. Rivers belong to the Volga and the Dnieper basins. There are many artificial reservoirs.

The oblast is situated in the mixed forests zone. Soils are derno-podzolic with differing degrees of podzolization; on the interstream area (of swamp type, in valleys) it is allluvial. Forests (oak, spruce, birch, pine, aspen) occupy 50% of the territory, arable land accounts for 40–50%. The Kaluzhskie Zaseki Reserve is located there.

There are dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and sheep-breeding. Wheat, rye, barley, oats, and flax-fiber are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 29.8% cereal crops; 0.5% industrial crops; 7.8% potatoes and vegetables; and 62.0% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.11 grains; 14.2 potatoes; and 22.1 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 236.0 cattle, including 120.2 cows; and 90.0 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 144.2 grains; 449.4 potatoes; 109.1 vegetables; 43.1 meat; and 323.8 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 855 km railways and 4,737 km main roads. The Oka River is used for navigation.

KAMCHATSKAYA OBLAST

Kamchatskaya Oblast is situated on Kamchatka peninsula; it is washed by the Sea of Okhotsk, the Bering Sea, and the Pacific Ocean. It includes Koryak Autonomous Area, which is a subject of the Russian Federation. The oblast was established on 20 October 1932 with an area of 472,300 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 396,100 people: 81.0% Russians, 9.1% Ukrainians, 8.4% others, and 1.5% Koryaks. The population density is 0.8 per km²; 81.0% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 199,700; Elizovo, 338,700; and Vilyuchinsk, 34,700.

The oblast proper occupies the southern part of Kamchatka peninsula. In the western part lies Zapadno-Kamchatskaya lowland; the central part of the peninsula is crossed by two parallel ranges (up to 2,485 m), between them lies Tsentralnokamchatskaya Lowland, along which the Kamchatka river flows. On Kamchatka there are more than 160 volcanoes, 28 of which are active. The climate is temperate monsoon, in the central part and in the north it is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –13^oC, and in July 12^oC. Precipitation is up to 1,000 mm per year. The contemporary glaciation is on the area of 866 km². There are lakes in craters and calderas of volcanoes. Forests are mainly light birch and coniferous (larch [Larix daurica], spruce [Picea ajanensis], fir) on derno-podzolic soils. On mountain slopes there are brushwoods of cedar and alder elfin wood, in low places there are meadows; in the north there is moss tundra. The Kronotsky Reserve is located there.

There are dairy-beef stockbreeding and poultry-raising. In the north there are reindeer-breeding, hunting of fur-bearing animals, and fur farming. Potatoes and vegetables are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 1.2% cereal crops; 22.1% potatoes and vegetables; and 76.7% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 12.2 potatoes and 15.7 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 14.8 cattle, including 7.6 cows; and 10.0 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 89.5 potatoes; 42.1 vegetables; 4.1 meat; and 16.5 milk.

The length of main roads in 1998 was 1,274 km. The Kamchatka River is used for navigation.

KARACHAI-CHERKESS REPUBLIC

Karachai-Cherkess Republic is situated in the south of European Russia, on the northern slope of the Great Caucasus. It was established on 12 January 1922, on April 26 it was separated into Klarachai Autonomous Oblast (АО) and Cherkess National Okrug, in 1943 Karachai AO was abolished. In 1957 united Karachai-Cherkess AO was established, since 1991 it is Karachai-Cherkess Republic. Its area is 14,100 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 433,500 people: 42.4% Russians, 31.2% Karachais, 9.7% Cherkesses, 6.9% others, 6.6% Abazins, and 3.2% Nogaitses. The population density is 30.7 per km²; 45.9% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Cherkessk, 121,400; Ust-Djeguta, 31,500; and Karachaevsk, 15,100.

The topography involves a slightly rolling piedmont plain with wide river terraces, and foothills and ranges of the northern slope of the Great Caucasus, where the top, Elbrus (5,642 m), can be singled out (more than two-thirds of the territory). The climate is continental. The average temperatures are: in January from –5^oC in the north to –10^oC in the south (in high mountains), and in July, 21^o and 8^oC, respectively. Precipitation is from 550 mm per year on the plain up to 2,500 mm in the mountains. The vegetative season is 140–150 days (on the plain). The main river is Kuban with its tributaries, and Kubanskoe Reservoir is there.

The republic is situated in mountain steppes and broad-leaved forests zone. Soils in the north are chernozems; to the south they are replaced by mountain-forest brown and mountain-meadow. On unplowed areas of the northern part there are steppes and forest-steppes. In the southern mountain part up to 2,000 m there are broad-leaved trees (oak, beech, hornbeam); higher, coniferous forests prevail (spruce, pine, fir, to be replaced at higher elevations by subalpine and alpine meadows. The Teberdinsky Reserve exists there, as well as a part of the Caucasian Reserve.

Wheat, corn, millet, barley, sunflower, and sugar-beet are cultivated. There is fruit-growing. Fields are irrigated by water from the Bolshoi Stavropolsky Canal. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 47.3% cereal crops; 9.5% industrial crops; 11.9% potatoes and vegetables; and 31.1% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 2.47 grains; 11.1 potatoes; and 13.4 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 133.0 cattle, including 75.9 cows; and 117 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 62.0 grains; 170.8 potatoes; 37.9 vegetables; 17.1 meat; and 138.6 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 51 km railways and 1,890 km main roads (including Military-Sukhumi road).

KEMEROVSKAYA OBLAST

Kemerovskaya Oblast is situated in the south of West Siberia. It was established on 26 January 1943 with an area of 95,500 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 3,002,100 people: 90.5% Russians, 5.4% others, 2.1% Ukrainians, and 2.0% Tatars. The population density is 31.4 per km²; 86.7% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Kemerovo, 494,000; Novokuznetsk, 565,000; Prokopievsk, 237,800; Leninsk-Kuznetsky, 115,000; Kiselevsk, 110,600; Mezhdurechensk, 104,600; and Anzhero-Sudzhensk, 95,200.

On the major part, there is Kuznetskaya basin, fringed by the Kuznetsky Alatau (heights up to 2,178 m), Gornaya Shoria, and Salairsky Ridge. In the north there are plain areas of the West Siberian Lowland. The climate is continental. Winter is long; the average February temperatures are from –17^o to –20^oC. Summer is short, but warm; the average July temperatures are from 17^o to 20^oC. Precipitation is 300–500 mm per year, in mountain regions up to 900 mm. The vegetative season is 137–160 days. The main rivers belong to the Ob basin, the largest one is the Tom.

The oblast is situated in the subtaiga and forest-steppe zones. The soils are mainly chernozemic and grey forest. Chernozems occupy especially vast areas in the western part of Kuznetskaya basin. On floodplain terraces, peat soils prevail. In the north and in the central part of Kuznetskaya basin there is birch forest-steppe. In foothills, birch forests with some areas of coniferous forests (larch, pine) prevail. On slopes there are mountain aspen and fir forests. In the extreme northeast, pine, cedar, and spruce join the fir trees. Forests occupy about 42% of the territory. The Shorsky National Park and the Kuznetsky Alatau Reserve are located there.

Agriculture is of a suburban type; in the northern regions wheat, barley, and oats are cultivated. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and bee-keeping. Hunting of fur-bearing animals takes place. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 57.3% cereal crops; 0.35 industrial crops; 6.0% potatoes and vegetables; and 36.3% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.48 grains; 10.9 potatoes; and 15.1 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 367.4 cattle, including 182.3 cows; and 353.0 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 730.7 grains; 559.8 potatoes; 116.5 vegetables; 65.6 meat; and 488.6 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,755 km railways and 5,485 km main roads. The Tom River is used for navigation.

KHABAROVSKY KRAI

Khabarovsky Krai is situated in the Far East. It is washed by the Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan. It was established on 20 October 1938 with an area of 788,600 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,523,300 people: 86.4% Russians, 7.5% others, and 6.1% Ukrainians. The population density is 1.9 per km²; 81.0% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Khabarovsk, 611.2; Komsomolsk-na-Amure, 296,000; Amursk, 54,300; and Nikolaevsk-na-Amure, 32,700.

A great part of the territory is occupied by mountain ranges, including Sikhote-Alin and Dzugdzur in the east, Bureinsky in the southwest, Suntar-Khayata (with heights up to 2,933 m) in the north. In the northwest there is highland; in the south and in the central part as well as on the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk there are vast lowlands. The climate is temperate monsoon. Winters are cold with little snow, and summers are warm and humid. The average temperatures are: in January from     –22^oC in the south down to –40^oC in the north; on the seacoast from –15^o to –25^oC; and in July from 11^oC in seaside regions up to 21^oC in inner areas. Precipitation is from 400 mm per year in the north up to 800 mm in the south and 1,000 mm on eastern slopes of Sikhote-Alin. In the north permafrost is widespread. The vegetative season in the south of the krai is 170–180 days. About half of the territory is drained by the Amur tributaries; the largest are Bureya, Tunguska, Goryun, Amgunj, Ussuri, Anyuj, and Gur. In the northwestern areas of the krai, rivers of the Lena basin flow – the Maya and the Uchur. Many rivers inflow directly into the Sea of Japan and the Sea of Okhotsk.

Mountain regions are situated in the taiga zone (larch, spruce, and fir). On Amurskaya Lowland there are subtaiga-type forests of fir and oak. Derno-podzolic and swamp soils prevail. In the southern regions brown taiga soils form. Forests (the main species are larch [Larix daurica], spruce [Picea ajanensis], and oak [Quercus mongolica]) occupy 50% of the territory. Considerable areas in the lowlands are occupied by maris and bogs. The Bolshekhekhtsirsky, Botchinsky, Bureinsky, Dzugdzursky, and Komsomolsky Reserves are located there.

Oats, barley, wheat, soy-bean, potatoes, and vegetables are cultivated. There are dairy/beef stockbreeding, poultry-raising, and bee-keeping. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 17.7% cereal crops, 11.7% industrial crops; 35.9% potatoes and vegetables; and 34.6% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.99 grains; 13.2 potatoes; and 16.6 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 59.7 cattle, including 30.8 cows; and 45.5 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 26.7 grains; 327.3 potatoes; 145.3 vegetables; 11.2 meat; and 74.5 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 2,307 km railways and 4,003 km main roads. The Amur is used for navigation.

KHANTY-MANSI AUTONOMOUS OKRUG

Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug is a subject of the Russian Federation within the composition of Tyumenskaya Oblast. It is situated in Western Siberia, in the Ob and Irtysh basin. It was established on 10 December 1930 (until 1940 it had been called Ostyako-Vogulsky Autonomous Okrug). Its area is 523,100 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,383,500 people: 66.3% Russians, 11.6% Ukrainians, 8.5% others, 7.6% Tatars, 2.4% Bashkirs, 2.2% Byelorussians, 0.9% Khanty, 0.5% Mansi. The population density is 2.6 per km²; 91.5% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Khanty-Mansiysk, 38,200; Surgut, 278,400; Nizhnevartovsk, 238,900; Nefteyugamsk, 98,100; Nyagan, 60,000; and Kogalym, 54,900.

The okrug is situated in the central part of the West Siberian Plain. Lowlands combine with uplands; in the west there are eastern slopes of the Severny and Pripolyarny Urals (heights up to 1,646 m). The climate is continental, with severe long winter (about 9 months) and relatively warm summer. The average temperatures are: in January from –18^o to –23^oC, and in July from 16^o to 19^oC. Precipitation is about 500 mm per year. In the north there is permafrost. The vegetative season in the south is 120–130 days. The main river is the Ob with large tributaries: Irtysh (lower course), Severnaya Sosjva, Vakh, Pim, Lyamin, Nazym, and Kazym. More than 1,500 lakes form entire systems, and there are many swamped areas.

The okrug is situated in the northern and central taiga zones. Peats high moor, gleyzems taiga differentiated, and podzols illuvial-ferrugenous are the soils that prevail. Forests occupy more than 30% of the territory. Coniferous species (spruce, pine, cedar) prevail, in deciduous forests there is mainly birch. In floodplains there are floodplain meadows. The Malaya Sosjva and Yugansky Reserves are located there.

Reindeer-breeding, dairy stockbreeding, fur farming and hunting of fur-bearing animals occur. Suburban vegetable growing, and potato growing are present. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 71.7% potatoes and vegetables; and 28.3% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 13.3 potatoes and 12.4 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 22.4 cattle, including 10.5 cows; and 30.9 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 65.4 potatoes; 8.2 vegetables; 6.1 meat; and 31.6 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,073 km railways and 1,458 km main roads. The Ob, Irtysh, Konda, Severnaya Sosjva, Vakh Rivers are used for navigation.

KIROVSKAYA OBLAST

Kirovskaya Oblast is situated in the east of European Russia. It was established on 7 December 1934 as Kirovsky Krai, since 1936 it has been known as Kirovskaya Oblast. The area is 120,800 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,603,200 people: 90.4% Russians, 4.3% others, 2.7% Tatars, and 2.6% Maris. The population density is 13.3 per km²; 70.2% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Kirov, 465,600; Kirovo-Chepetsk, 92,700; Vyatskie Polyany, 42,500; Slobodskoi, 35,000; Kotelnich, 30,900; and Omutninsk, 28,900.

The oblast is situated in the east of the East European Plain. In the eastern and northern parts are Vyatsky and Severny Uvaly; in the northeast there is Verkhnekamskaya upland (with heights up to 357 m); along the Vyatka river there are lowlands. There are many karst forms of topography. The climate is temperate continental, with a long, temperately cold winter and a short but comparatively warm summer. Average temperatures are: in January from –14^o to –16^oC, and in July from 17^o to 19^oC. Precipitation is about 500 mm per year. The vegetative period lasts around 155–170 days. The main river is the Vyatka; in the northeast the Kama river flows, and in the west there is the Vetluga river head.

The oblast is situated in the southern taiga zone. The soils are mainly sod-podzolics, podzols (illuvial-humic-ferrugenous, without subdivision), and – in some places – forest greys. About 53% of the territory is covered by forests, mainly spruce and fir, as well as mixed (spruce, birch, pine). The Nurgush Reserve is located there.

Specialization of agriculture is beef/dairy stockbreeding and grain production. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 47.5% cereal crops; 0.2% industrial crops; 3.9% potatoes and vegetables; and 48.4% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.98 grains; 17.7 potatoes; and 34.1 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 607.6 cattle, including 253.6 cows; and 265.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 721.5 grains; 733.0 potatoes; 358.1 vegetables; 93.7 meat; and 733.1 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,093 km railways and 8,784 km main roads. The Vyatka is used for navigation.

KOMI REPUBLIC

Komi Republic is situated in the extreme northeast of European Russia. It was established on 22 August 1921 as an autonomous oblast; in December 1936 it was reestablished as the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic – ASSR. Since 26 May 1992, it is Komi Republic with an area of 415,900 km². According to the 1989 census, the population is 1,151,400 people: 57.7% Russians, 23.3% Komi, 10.6% others, 8.3% Ukrainians, and 0.1% Komi-Permyaks. The population density is 2.8 per km²; 74.6% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Syktyvkar, 230,500; Ukhta, 102,100; Vorkuta, 92,900; and Pechora, 60,900.

The Republic is situated in the northeast of the East European Plain. The topography is mainly plain (Pechora Lowland); from the southeast to the northwest runs the Timansky Ridge. In the east there are the Urals ranges (the highest top is Narodnaya mountain – 1,895 m). Karst topography forms are widespread. The climate is temperate continental with long, rather severe winters and short, comparatively warm summers. The average temperatures are: in January from –17^oC in the southwest to –20^oC in the northeast, and in July from 15^o to 11^oC, respectively. Precipitation is from 700 to 1,500 mm per year (in the mountains). In the north and northeast there is permafrost. The vegetative season is from 150 days in the south to 90 days in the northeast. The main rivers are Pechora with Usa and Izhma.

The main part of the territory is situated in the taiga zone. The soils are mainly podzolics. Forests occupy 69% of the area: spruce and pine prevail; cedar, fir, and larch occur. Northward of latitude 66^o north, taiga is replaced by forest-tundra with spruce-birch light forest, oligotrophic moors and tundra with sedge, yernik, and moss on soils of tundra type. The Yugydva National Park, and the Pechoto-Ilychsky Reserve are located there.

Beef/dairy stockbreeding prevails in agriculture; in the suburbs pig-breeding and poultry-raising occur. Horses and sheep are also bred; and in northern areas there are reindeer-breeding and the hunting of fur-bearing animals. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 1.6% cereal crops; 18.7% potatoes and vegetables; and 79.7% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.87 grains; 15.6 potatoes; and 19.5 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 91.3 cattle, including 46.0 cows; and 29.8 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 0.7 grains; 284.7 potatoes; 39.6 vegetables; 15.9 meat; and 110.1 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,708 km railways and 4,796 km main roads. The Pechora and Vychegda are used for navigation.

KOMI-PERMYATSKY AUTONOMOUS OKRUG

Komi-Permyatsky Autonomous Okrug is a subject of the Russian Federation within Permskaya oblast. It is situated in the foothills of the Urals, in the upper course of the Kama River. It was established on 26 February 1925 with an area of 32,900 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 151,400 people: 60.2% Komi-Permyaks, 36.1% Russians, and 3.7% others. The population density is 4.6 per km²; 30.6% of the population is urban. The administrative center is Kudymkar (34,400 people as of 01.01.1999).

The major part of the territory is low areas, the topography is slightly hilly. In the north are the Severnye Uvaly; in the west is Verkhnekamskaya Upland (with heights up to 280 m). The climate is continental, with a severe, snowy winter and a comparatively short, warm summer. The average temperatures are: in January from   –15^o to –17^oC, and in July from 17^o to 18^oC. Precipitation is about 500 mm per year. In the north and northeast there is permafrost. The vegetative season is from 150 days in the south to 90 days in the northeast. The main river is the Kama. In the north there are many sphagnum bogs.

The okrug is situated on the border of the middle and southern taiga zones. The soils are mainly podzolic and derno-podzolic. About 80% of the territory is occupied by spruce and spruce-fir forests.

Beef/dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, and hunting of fur-bearing animals occur. Rye, wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, and vegetables (cabbage, carrot, beetroot) are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 40.5% cereal crops; 8.5% potatoes and vegetables; and 51.0% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.84 grains; 14.4 potatoes; and 30.0 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 57.1 cattle, including 31.3 cows; and 18.1 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 are: 38.8 grains; 128.8 potatoes; 36.5 vegetables; 7.3 meat; and 804 milk.

The length of main roads is 1,276 km. The Kama is used for navigation.

KORYAK AUTONOMOUS OKRUG

Koryak Autonomous Okrug is a subject of the Russian Federation within Kamchatskaya Oblast. It is situated in the north of Kamchatka peninsula and covers a contiguous part of the mainland and Karaginsky Island. It is washed by the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering Sea. It was established on 10 December 1930 with an area of 301,500 km². According to the 1989 census, the population is 30,800 people: 62.0% Russians, 16.4% Koryaks, 7.2% Ukrainians, 6.0% others, 3.6% Chukchis, 3.0% Itelmens, and 1.8% Evens. The population density is 0.1 per km²; 24.3% of the population is urban. The administrative center of the okrug is Palana, a settlement of urban type with 4,100 people (counted as of 01.01.1999).

The topography is mainly middle mountains. In the northern part of Kamchatka, the Sredinny range stretches; in the east of the okrug there is Koryak highland. Between them lie Penzhinskaya lowland and Parapolsky dale, divided by Penzhinsky range. The climate is subarctic. Winter is cold, long, and snowy; the average temperatures in January are from –24^o to –26^oC. Summer is cool and short; the average temperatures in July are 10^o–14^oC. Precipitation is 300–700 mm per year. Permafrost is widespread. The vegetative season is 65-110 days. There are many short, deep rivers, the largest one is the Penzhina.

The okrug is situated in the forest-tundra zone. In the mountainous part, mountain-tundra soils prevail; on low areas, podzolic and peat bog soils are developed. Cedar elfin wood is widespread, on the western coast of Kamchatka there are birch (Betula ermanii) forests, in the upper course of the Penzhina there are light forests of larch. The Koryak Reserve is located there.

Reindeer-breeding, fur farming, hunting, and fishing take place. Fodder crops occupy almost 100% of the cultivated land. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 13.6 potatoes and 1.7 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 0.9 cattle, including 0.5 cows; and 0.2 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 0.7 meat and 1.1 milk.

The length of main roads is 57 km. The Penzhina is used for navigation.

KOSTROMSKAYA OBLAST

Kostromskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on 13 August 1944 with an area of 60,100 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 786,900 people: 96.3% Russians and 3.7% others. The population density is 13.1 per km²; 66.3% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Kostroma, 288,400; Bui, 28,300; Nerekhta, 28,000; Sharjya, 26,100; Manturovo, 20,800; and Galich, 20,600.

The oblast is situated within the limits of moraine-hilly, and in some places swamped, plain. In the west there is Kostromskaya Lowland, in the central part there is an upland (up to 292 m), in the northeast are the Severnye Uvaly. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –12^oC, and in July 18^oC. Precipitation is about 600 mm per year (the maximum is in summer). The vegetative season is about 110–140 days. The main river is the Volga, with tributaries Kostroma, Unzha, and Vetluga. The large lakes are Galichskoe and Chukhlomskoe.

The oblast is situated in the southern taiga zone. The soils are sod-podzolic from moraine, from cover loam, and from loamy-sandy. They are sandy on water-glacial and ancient alluvial deposits. Forests (the main species is spruce) occupy about 60% of the territory.

There are dairy-beef and dairy stockbreeding (Kostroma breed), poultry-raising, pig-breeding, and sheep-breeding. Rye, wheat, barley, oats, and flax-fiber are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 37.2% cereal crops; 1.8% industrial crops; 4.9% potatoes and vegetables; and 56.1% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.88 grains; 17.3 potatoes; and 25.5 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 193.0 cattle, including 95.5 cows; and 69.1 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 116.6 grains; 272.3 potatoes; 130.6 vegetables; 34.1 meat; and 263.2 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 640 km railways and 5,366 km main roads. The Volga, as well as the lower courses of the Kostroma, Unzha, and Nemda, are used for navigation.

KRASNODARSKY KRAI

Krasnodarsky Krai is situated in the south of European Russia. It was established on 13 September 1937 with an area of 76,000 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 5,009,900 people: 86.7% Russians, 5.7% others, 3.9% Ukrainians, and 3.7% Armenians. The population density is 65.9 per km²; 53.8% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Krasnodar, 642,200; Sochi, 334,400; Novorossijsk, 205,100; Armavir, 164,700; Eisk, 85,100; and Kropotkin, 81,300.

It is situated in the western part of the Great Caucasus (Pseashkho mountain – 3,256 m) on the Kubano-Priazovskaya Lowland; in the east there are outskirts of the Stavropolskaya Upland. Karst is developed. The climate is from temperate continental to subtropical. The average temperatures are: in January from –4^oC on the plain up to 5^oC on the coast, and in July from 22^o to 24^oC; in the mountains (at the height of 2,200 m), temperatures are –8^o and 13^oC, respectively. Precipitation is from 400 mm on the plain up to 3,200 mm in the mountains per year. The vegetative season on the plain is 220–240 days. The main river is the Kuban, with Urup, Laba, Belaya, etc. left tributaries. In the high mountains there are many karst lakes, on Taman peninsula and on the coast of the Sea of Azov there are lakes, or brackish lagoons.

The krai is situated in the northern steppes zone. On the plain of Western Predkavkazje there are especially fertile chernozems, in the mountains the soils are sod calcareouses. Around 80% of the steppes are plowed up. In the mountains there are broad-leaved (oak, beech) forests, in the region of Tuapse-Sochi, as well as dark coniferous (Caucasian spruce and fir) forests. Higher there are subalpine and alpine meadows. The Sochi National Park and the Caucasian Reserve are located there.

This is the main agricultural region of Russia. Cereal crops are cultivated, as are vines and fruit. In the south there is tea cultivation. Dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and poultry-raising prevail. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 45.2% cereal crops; 22.2% industrial crops; 5.3% potatoes and vegetable-melons; and 27.3% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 3.04 grains; 6.3 potatoes; and 9.2 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 903.9 cattle, including 397.7 cows; and 1,357.7 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 3,531.9 grains; 715.1 potatoes; 389.7 vegetables; 202.9 meat; and 1,081.5 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 2,174 km railways and 10,208 km main roads. The Kuban (from the Laba mouth) is used for navigation.

KRASNOYARSKY KRAI

Krasnoyarsky Krai is situated within Western Siberia, in the Enisei basin. In the north it is washed by the Kara and Laptev seas. It includes two autonomous okrugs (subjects of the Russian Federation): Taimyrsky (Dolgano-Nenetsky), and Evenkijsky. It was established on 7 December 1934 with an area of 2,339,700 km². According to the 1989 census, the population is 3,075,600 people: 87.0% Russians, 8.9 % others, and 3.5% Ukrainians. The population density is 1.3 per km²; 73.9% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Krasnoyarsk, 877,600; Norilsk,151,800; Achinsk, 122,800; Kansk, 108,100; Zheleznogorsk, 94,600; and Minusinsk, 73,300.

Krasnoyarsky Krai extends from the Arctic Ocean to the Southern Siberia mountains. About 20% of the territory is situated over the Arctic circle. In the topography there are the Byrranga Mountains in the Taimyr peninsula, with a steep precipice toward the North Siberian Plain; the West Siberian Plain, and the Central Siberian Plateau. In the south there is the Vostochny Sayan (heights up to 2,922 m), Zapadny Sayan, Kuznetsky Alatau, and a number of intermontane basins (Minusinskaya, Chulymo-Eniseiskaya, etc).

The climate is extreme continental. Winter is cold and long; the average temperatures in January are from –36^oC in the north to –18^oC in the south. Summer is warm, the average temperatures in July are from 13^oC in the north (on sea-shores less than 10^oC) up to 20^oC in the south. Precipitation ranges from 200 mm per year in the north to 1,200 mm in the mountains of Southern Siberia. On the greater part of the territory, permafrost is widespread. The vegetative season is 100–150 days. The main river is the Enisei. Its tributaries include the Tuba, Mana, Kan, Angara, Bolshoi Pit, Stony and Nizhnyaya Tunduski, Kureika, Abakan, Sym, Turukhan, etc. The Chulym and Ketj (the Ob basin) also flow along the krai’s territory. In the north there are the Khatanga, Pyasina, and Taimyra. The large lakes are Taimyr, Pyasino, Lama, Glubokoe, Keta, and Khanyaiskoe.

Territory of the krai stretches from arctic deserts to typical steppes. In the north, soils are peat swamp; southward they are replaced by permafrost taiga, grey forest, chernozemic, and chestnut. In the north (as far as the Khatanga valley) tundra consisting of moss-lichens and bushes prevails, southward it is replaced by a narrow belt of forest tundra. On the major part of the krai there are larch taiga forests, with the addition of pine, cedar, spruce, and fir southward of Stony Tunguska. In intermontane basins in the south the vegetation is forest steppe and steppe. On the krai’s territory there are the Shushensky Bor National Park, and the Bolshoi Arktichesky, Putoransky, Sayano-Shushensky, Stolby, Taimyrsky, Tungussky, Centralno-Sibirsky Reserves.

There is beef/dairy stockbreeding; in the south there is fine-fleeced sheep-breeding; in the north there are reindeer-breeding and fur farming, and hunting of fur-bearing animals. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 57.2% cereal crops; 0.2% industrial crops; 4.5% potatoes and vegetables; and 38.1% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.58 grains; 12.4 potatoes; and 21.8 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 693.4 cattle, including 324.1 cows; and 509.1 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1,694.4 grains; 996.4 potatoes; 213.6 vegetables; 108.3 meat; and 809.7 milk.

The length of transport routes in1998 was 2,068 km railways and 12,210 km main roads. The Enisei, with a way out to the Northern Sea Route, is used for navigation.

KURGANSKAYA OBLAST

Kurganskaya Oblast is situated in the south of Western Siberia. It was established on 6 February 1943 with an area of 71,000 km². According to the 1989 census, the population is 1,102,100 people: mainly Russians, Tatars, and others. The population density is 15.5 per km²; 54.8% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Kurgan, 365,400; and Shadrinsk, 88,000.

The oblast is situated in the south of the West Siberian Plain (heights up to 210 m). The surface is almost flat, slightly uplifted in the west and southwest, with numerous padings, gentle grivas and wide river valleys. The climate is extreme continental. The average temperatures are: in January –18^oC, and in July 19^oC. Precipitation is about 400 mm per year. The vegetative season is 160–165 days. The main rivers are the Tobol and its tributaries Iset’ (with Mias), Yurgamysh, and Kurtamysh. There are about 2,000 lakes.

The oblast is situated mainly in the forest steppe zone. The soils are mainly solonetzic and solonchakous meadow-chernozemics, leached chernozems, and meadowish solonetzes. Meadow steppes with feather-grass and steppe meadow alternate with birch kolkis. Up to 40% of the territory is plowed up.

Wheat, barley, oats, and corn are cultivated. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and poultry-raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 67.4% cereal crops; 1.2% industrial crops; 1.8% potatoes and vegetables; and 29.6% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.91 grains; 11.9 potatoes; and 19.8 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 446.0 cattle, including 207.4 cows; and 269.9 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 977.5 grains; 172.7 potatoes; 88.9 vegetables; 66.8 meat; and 458.3 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 748 km railways and 6,295 km main roads. The Tobol is used for navigation.

KURSKAYA OBLAST

Kurskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on 13 June 1934 with an area of 29,800 km². According to the 1989 census, the population is 1,323,500 people: 96.9% Russians and 3.1% others. The population density is 44.4 per km²; 59.9% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Kursk, 441,200; Zheleznogorsk, 97,000; Kurchatov, 48,300; Ljgov, 23,900; and Schigry, 20,900.

The oblast is situated in the Central Russian Upland (heights up to 275 m). The topography is erosional, greatly dissected by ravines and balkas. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –8^oC, and in July 19^oC. Precipitation is about 500 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 170 days. There are rivers of the Dnieper basin – the Seim with tributaries Svapa, Tuskarm Psel; the Don basin – the upper course of the Oskol, Tim, Kshen, etc.

The oblast is situated in the forest steppe zone. The soils are mainly chernozems. Forests (oak, ash, elm, maple, birch) occupy up to 6% of the territory; arable lands occupy up to 76%. The Tsentralno-Chernozemny Reserve is located there.

Rye, wheat, barley, and sugar-beet are cultivated. Fruit is grown. There are dairy/beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, and poultry-raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 59.8% cereal crops; 4.9% industrial crops; 7.0% potatoes and vegetables; and 28.3% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.5 grains; 10.9 potatoes; and 10.1 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 422.3 cattle, including 217.0 cows; and 352.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1,205.7 grains; 947.8 potatoes; 160.0 vegetables; 85.2 meat; and 466.8 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,067 km railways and 5,984 km main roads.

LENINGRADSKAYA OBLAST

Leningradskaya Oblast is situated in the northwest of European Russia. It is washed by the Gulf of Finland of the Baltic Sea, and by Ladoga and Onega lakes. In the northwest it borders Finland, in the west, Estonia. It was established on 1 August 1927 with an area (together with Saint-Petersburg) of 85,900 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,673,700 people: 90.9% Russians, 6.1% others, and 3.0% Ukrainians, The population density (including Saint-Petersburg) is 74.1 per km²; 66% of the population (without Saint-Petersburg) is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: Gatchina, 82,300; Vyborg, 80,500; Tikhvin, 68,000; Sosnovy Bor, 62,400; and Kirishi, 56,300.

On the greater part of the territory there are lowlands with traces of ice water activities. Between the Gulf of Finland and Ladoga is the elevated Karelian Isthmus; southward stretches the Baltic-Ladoga Escarp (the so-called Glint). Heights are up to 300 m. The climate is transitional, from marine to continental. The average temperatures are: in January –7^oC, and in July 15^oC. Precipitation is up to 850 mm per year. The vegetative season is 150–173 days. The large rivers are the Neva, Volkhov, Svirj, Luga, Vuoksa, and Syasj. There are many lakes, especially on the Karelian Isthmus.

The oblast is situated in the middle and southern taiga zone. The soils are mainly gleyic podzols, poszolics, and high moor peats. Forests (spruce, pine, birch, aspen) occupy about 50% of the territory. The Nizhne-Svirsky Reserve is located there.

Agriculture is of a suburban type. There are dairy/beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and poultry-raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 7.3% cereal crops; 16.5% potatoes and vegetables; and 76.2% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.36 grains; 13.5 potatoes; and 20.8 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 251.1 cattle, including 125.1 cows; and 130.5 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 39.4 grains; 587.9 potatoes; 219.9 vegetables; 59.3 meat; and 533.6 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 2,810 km railways (including Saint-Petersburg) and 10,375 km main roads. The Volga-Baltic Route, Belomorsko-Baltijsky and Saimensky canals, Ladoga and Onega lakes, the Neva, Cvirj, and other rivers are used for navigation.

LIPETSKAYA OBLAST

Lipetskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on 6 January 1954 with an area of 24,100 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,244,900 people: 97.4% Russians and 2.6% others. The population density is 44.4 per km²; 63.1% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Lipetsk, 519,200; Elets, 119,300; Gryazi, 48,200; Dankov, 24,500; and Lebedyanj, 22,000.

The oblast is situated in the upper Don basin within the Central Russian Upland in the west (heights up to 262 m), and the Oksko-Donskaya Plain in the east. The topography is erosional. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –10^oC, and in July 19^oC. Precipitation is about 500 mm per year. The vegetative season is 180–190 days. The main rivers are the Don (with tributaries Krasivaya Mecha, Sosna) and the Voronezh (with tributaries Matyra, Usmanj).

The oblast is situated in the forest-steppe zone. The soils are typical chernozems in the southeast. They are leached chernozems, and grey and dark-grey forests in the northwest, and meadow-chernozems along valleys and balkas. Oak groves and pine-oak forests occupy 7% of the territory. Arable land accounts for up to 70%. The Voronezhsky and Galichya Gora Reserves are located there.

Wheat, rye, barley, and sugar-beet are cultivated; and fruit is grown. There are dairy/beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and meat-and-wool sheep-breeding. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 56.0% cereal crops; 7.1% industrial crops; 6.1% potatoes and vegetables; and 30.9% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.5 grains; 10.0 potatoes; and 13.4 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 333.2 cattle, including 151.1 cows; and 270.5 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1,151.9 grains; 577.8 potatoes; 155.8 vegetables; 51.7 meat; and 375.8 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 752 km railways and 5,086 km main roads.

MAGADANSKAYA OBLAST

Magadanskaya Oblast is situated in the extreme northeast of Russia. It is washed by the Sea of Okhotsk. It was established on 3 December 1953 with an area of 461,400 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 246,100 people: 75.2% Russians, 14.9% Ukrainians, and 9.9% others. The population density is 0.5 per km²; 88.5% of the population is urban. The capital is Magadan (121,700 people as of 01.01.1999).

The major part of the oblast is mountainous. In the east is the Kolyma range; in the central part are offshoots of the Chersky range (heights up to 2,586 m). The climate is extreme continental, and severe. Winter is long (up to 8 months); summer is cool. The average temperatures are: in January from –19^oC down to –23^oC on the Sea of Okhotsk seashore, and –38^oC in the central part of the oblast. In July, the temperatures are 12^o and 16^oC, respectively. Precipitation is 300–700 mm per year. Everywhere (except the Sea of Okhotsk coast) permafrost is widespread. The vegetative season does not exceed 100 days. The dense river network belongs to the basins of the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. The largest river is Kolyma.

The oblast is situated in the northern taiga zone. The soils are dry-peaty podburs, shallow gleyzems, and deep-peat tundra, as well as low-moor peats. There are light taiga forests, which feature larch. The Magadansky Reserve is located there.

Reindeer-breeding is developed, and fruit is grown. There are dairy/beef stockbreeding, fur farming, hunting of fur-bearing animals, and poultry-raising. Potatoes, cabbage, carrots, and fodder crops are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 15.9% potatoes and vegetables; and 84.1% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.71 grains; 4.8 potatoes; and 6.7 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 8.5 cattle, including 4.6 cows; and 2.0 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 16.2 potatoes; 4.5 vegetables; 0.8 meat; and 6.5 milk.

The length of main roads (the main one is Kolymsky high road) is 2,633 km.

MOSCOW

Moscow is the capital of the Russian Federation, the center of the Moskovskaya Oblast, and a subject of the Russian Federation. Its area (without Zelenograd and other settlements subordinate to Moscow mayoralty) is 994.0 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 8,538,200 people (8,297,900 in Moscow itself, and 207,300 in Zelenograd): 89.7% Russians, 5.4% others, 2.9% Ukrainians, and 2.0% Jews.

It is situated in European Russia, at the junction of Smolensko-Moskovskaya Upland, the Moskvoretsko-Okskaya Plain, and the Mescherskaya Lowland, in interstream of the Oka and Volga, on the Moskva river (the left tributary of the Oka). The major part of the city’s territory is situated at the height of 120 m. The climate is temperate continental. Winter is temperately cold and long, with stable snow cover. The average temperatures in January are –10^oC. Summer is warm; the average temperatures in July are 18^oC. Precipitation is 540–650 mm per year (maximum in July–August).

MOSKOVSKAYA OBLAST

Moskovskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on 14 January 1929 with an area of 47,000 km². According to the 1989 census, the population (without Moscow) amounts to 6,500,500 people: 93.5% Russians, 3.7% others, and 2.8% Ukrainians. The population density is 140 per km²; 80% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: Podolsk, 194,500; Lyubertsy, 164,800; Mytischi, 156,600; Kolomna, 151,300; Elektrostal, 147,500; Serpukhov, 135,000; Khimki, 134,900; Korolev, 134,200; and Balashikha, 133,200.

The topography is mostly plain, in the north and west uplands stretch up to 285 m. In the east there is bogged lowland. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –10^oC, and in July 17^oC. Precipitation is 450–650 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 170 days. The main navigable rivers are the Oka and Moskva, as well as the Moskva-Volga canal. The soils are sod-podzolics, and boggy peats. Forests occupy 50% of the territory, the main species are spruce, pine, and birch, combined in the south with oak and lime.

Agriculture is of a suburban type. There is stockbreeding, the total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 567.5 cattle, including 265.3 cows; and 247.3 pigs. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 20.5% cereal crops (mainly in the south of the oblast); 0.2% industrial crops; 12.6% potatoes and vegetables (especially in the southeast of the oblast); and 66.7% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.51 grains; 12.1 potatoes; and 18.1 vegetables. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 260.9 grains; 947.6 potatoes; 489.1 vegetables; 87.1 meat; and 910.4 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 2,750 km railways (including Moscow) and 15,220 km main roads.

MURMANSKAYA OBLAST

Murmanskaya Oblast is situated in the northwest of European Russia. It is washed by the Barents and the White Seas. In the west, it borders Norway and Finland. The oblast was established on 26 May 1938 with an area of 144,900 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,018,100 people: 82.9% Russians, 9.0% Ukrainians, and 8.1% others. The population density is 7.0 per km²; 91.8% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Murmansk, 381,800; Apatity, 70,100; Monchegorsk, 59,100; Severomorsk, 56,100; Kandalaksha, 46,000.

The oblast occupies the whole Kola Peninsula. In the western part, there are mountain massifs of the Khibini (heights up to 1,191 m) and Lovozerskie tundras; in the central part there is the Keivy dividing ridge. In the southern part the climate is temperate marine; in the northern part it is subarctic, comparatively mild. The average temperatures are: in January from –8^oC in the north down to –13^oC in the central part, and in July 8^o and 14^oC, respectively. Precipitation is from 350 to 1,000 mm (in mountain regions) per year. The vegetative season is 80–130 days. Many cataract rivers run through the oblast, and the Imandra, Umbozero, and Lovozero lakes exist there. In the north there is moss-lichen tundra, southward there are forest-tundra and northern taiga (pine, spruce, birch). The soils are podzolic and peat. The Kandalakshsky, Laplandsky, and Pasvik Reserves are located there.

There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, reindeer-breeding, poultry-raising, and pig-breeding. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 18.5% potatoes and vegetables; and 81.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 12.4 potatoes and 4.1 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 119 cattle, including 5.3 cows; and 32.3 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 25.1 potatoes; 5.0 vegetables; 4.9 meat; and 22.6 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 891 km railways and 2,500 km main roads.

NENETS AUTONOMOUS OKRUG

Nenets Autonomous Okrug is a subject of the Russian Federation within Arkhangelskaya Oblast. It is situated in the extreme northwest of European Russia. The major part of the territory is situated over the Arctic Circle. It is washed by the White, Barents, and Kara Seas. It includes Kolguev and Vaigach Islands. The okrug was established on 15 July 1929 as Nenets National Okrug, since 7 October 1977 it is an autonomous okrug. Its area is 176,700 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 45,500 people: 65.8% Russians, 12.8% others, 11.9% Nenets, and 9.5% Komi. The population density is 0.3 per km²; 60.8% of the population is urban. The administrative center is Naryan-Mar (18,500 as of 01.01.1999).

The okrug is mainly a low plain. In the topography, Timansky Ridge and Pai-Khoi range (up to 467 m) can be singled out,  as can swamped areas of the Bolshezemelskaya and Malozemelskaya tundras. The climate is subarctic with a cool summer and a long, cold winter. The average temperatures are: in January from –12^oC in the southwest down to –22^oC in the northeast, and in July from 6^oC in the north and up to 18^oC in the south. Precipitation is about 350 mm per year. Permafrost is widespread. The vegetative season is 72–110 days. The main river is the Pechora. The soils are mainly gleyzems and peats. The greatest portion of the territory is situated in the tundra zone; in river valleys there is dense brushwood of willow. Southern and southwestern parts of the okrug are situated mainly in the forest-tundra zones, with light spruce-birch forests.

Dairy stockbreeding prevails. Potatoes and vegetables are cultivated. Fur farming is present. Arable lands are completely occupied by potatoes and vegetables (1998).The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 4.4 cattle, including 2.0 cows; and 0.1 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1.3 potatoes; 0.1 vegetables; 2.0 meat; and 6.5 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 127 km. The Pechora is used for navigation.

NIZHEGORODSKAYA OBLAST

Nizhegorodskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on 14 January 1929. After 1929 it was called Nizhegorodsky Krai, and after 1932 Gorkovsky Krai. From 1936–1990 it was called Gorkovskaya Oblast, and since 1990 it has been known as Nizhegorodskaya Oblast. Its area is 76,900 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 3,687,700 people: 94.7% Russians and 5.3% others. The population density is 48.0 per km²; 77.6% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Nizni Novgorod, 1,361,500; Dzerzhinsk, 279,200; Arzamas, 110,800; Sarov, 83,800; Pavlovo, 70,700; Kstovo, 69,600; and Bor, 63,800.

The oblast is situated in the central part of the East European Plain. The Volga divides the oblast into low Levoberezhje (Zavolzhje) and high Pravoberezhje, a continuation of Privolzhskaya Upland (up to 247 m). Karst relief forms are developed.    The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January from  –12^oC, and in July 19^oC. Precipitation is about 500 mm per year. The vegetative season is 165–175 days. The main rivers are the Volga and its tributaries Oka, Kudjma, Sura, Uzola, Kerzhenets, and Vetluga.

The oblast is situated in the zone of south-taiga, and of mixed and broad-leaved forests. The soils are mainly sod-podzolics, and light-grey forest. Forests occupy about 40% of the territory: in Zavolzhje they are coniferous (spruce, pine) and mixed, in Pravoberezhje they are oak groves and meadow steppes. On flat watersheds and in lowlands there are many bogs. The Kerzhensky Reserve is located there.

Rye, oats, barley, wheat, buckwheat, sugar-beet, and flax-fiber are cultivated. There are dairy-beef and dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and poultry-raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 49.2% cereal crops, 0.4% industrial crops, 6.1% potatoes and vegetables; and 44.3% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.09 grains; 13.6 potatoes; and 17.8 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 663.9 cattle, including 303.7 cows; and 325.8 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 811.1 grains; 932.2 potatoes; 251.0 vegetables; 88.1 meat; and 931.0 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,215 km railways and 12,372 km main roads. The Volga, Oka, Vetluga, and Sura are used for navigation.

NOVGORODSKAYA OBLAST

Novgorodskaya Oblast is situated in the northeast of European Russia. It was established on 5 July 1944 with an area of 55,300 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 733,900 people: 94.7% Russians and 5.3 % others. The population density is 13.3 per km²; 70.6% of the population is urban. The largest cities (population as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Veliky Novgorod, 230,600; Borovichi, 61,600; and Staraya Russa, 39,800.

The major part is the flat Priilmenskaya Lowland, swamped in some places; in the southeast are the hilly-moraine Valdai Hills (up to 299 m); in the northeast is the Tikhvinskaya hilly-moraine ridge. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –7^oC, and in July 14^oC. Precipitation is up to 800 mm per year. The vegetative season is 120–130 days. The large rivers are the Volkhov, Msta, Lovatj, and Shelonj. The Iljmenj, Valdaiskoe, Velje, and other lakes exist there.

The oblast is situated in the forest zone (southern taiga and mixed forests). The soils are sod-podzolics and boggy peats. Forests (birch, aspen, alder, spruce, pine) occupy about 50% of the territory. The Valdai National Park is located there.

There are flax cultivation, dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and poultry-raising. Wheat, rye, oats, and barley are also cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 16.1% cereal crops, 1.5% industrial crops, 11.8% potatoes and vegetables; and 70.7% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.85 grains; 13.9 potatoes; and 16.9 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 116.9 cattle, including 64.7 cows; and 59.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 32.2 grains; 224.8 potatoes; 110.3 vegetables; 20.7 meat; and 166.5 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was: 1,153 km railways and 8,513 km main roads. The Volkhov, Msta Rivers are used for navigation, as are the Iljmenj and Valdaisky Lakes.

NOVOSIBIRSKAYA OBLAST

Novosibirskaya Oblast is situated in the southeast of Western Siberia. It was established on 28 September 1937 with an area of 178,200 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 2,748,200 people: 92.0% Russians, 5.8% others, and 2.2% Germans. The population density is 15.4 per km²; 73.7% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Novosibirsk, 1,402,100; Berdsk, 86,300; Iskitim, 68,300; and Kuibyshev, 52,400.

The oblast is situated in the southeast of the West Siberian Plain. It occupies the southern part of Vasjyuganskaya Lowland; in the east there are offshoots of Salairsky Ridge (up to 498 m). In the central and southern part from northeast to southwest extend grivas up to 6–10 m; between them there are bogs and lakes. The climate is extreme continental. The average temperatures are: in January from –16^oC in the south down to –20^oC in the north, and in July from 18^o to 20^oC. Precipitation is 300–500 mm per year. The vegetative season is from 145 days in the north up to 158–163 days in the south. The major part of rivers belong to the Ob basin, and many rivers end in enclosed lakes. The Ob crosses the eastern part of the oblast; in the northwest the Irtysh tributaries – Om and Tara – flow. There are many lakes: Chany, Sartlan, Ubinskoe, and Uryum, to name a few.

The oblast is situated in the zones of southern taiga, mixed forests, and forest-steppe. The soils are mainly solonetzic and solonchakous meadows, meadowish solonetzes, and leached chernozems. Forests occupy 11% of the territory. In the north the taiga is swamped (featuring fir, spruce, pine, and cedar, with the addition of birch, aspen, and sometimes larch); southward there are hardwood forests and typical forest-steppe with birch kolkis and pine forests. In the east there are areas of steppe with forbs, tipchak (Festuca sulcata), and feather grass.

Grain cultivation is highly developed; so is beef/dairy stockbreeding and poultry-raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 63.3% cereal crops, 0.7% industrial crops, 2.4% potatoes and vegetables; and 33.6% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 13.7 grains; 135 potatoes; and 287 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 862.0 cattle, including 385.1 cows; and 400.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1,615.4 grains; 449.0 potatoes; 232.4 vegetables; 134.8 meat; and 873.8 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,530 km railways and 9,321 km main roads. The Ob is used for navigation.

OMSKAYA OBLAST

Omskaya Oblast is situated in the south of Western Siberia. It was established on 7 December 1934 with an area of 139,700 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 2,179,700 people: 80.3% Russians, 6.3% Germans, 4.9% Ukrainians, 3.5% Kazakhs, 2.7% others, and 2.3% Tatars. The population density is 15.6 per km²; 67.2% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Omsk, 1,157,600; Isiljkulj, 27,600; and Kalachinsk, 25,600.

The oblast is situated in the south of the West Siberian Plain, in the middle course of the Irtysh. The topography is a gently sloping/rolling plain (heights up to 146 m); in the south grivas extend for a number of kilometers; in the northern part there are vast swamped areas. The climate is continental. Winter is long and cold, the average temperature in January is –20^oC; summer is warm and short, the average temperature in July is 20^oC. Precipitation is 300–400 mm per year. The vegetative season is 153–162 days. The main river is the Irtysh with tributaries Ishim, Omj, and Tara. There are many lakes: mainly salt in the south and freshwater in the north.

The oblast is situated from the south-taiga zone to the northern steppes zone. The soils are mainly solonetzic and solonchakous meadows, meadowous solonetzes, and ordinary glossic chernozems. Forests occupy 24% of the oblast territory. The main species are cedar, spruce, fir, birch, and aspen; mixed forests southward are replaced by birch and aspen forests which gradually transit to kolki of the forest-steppe zone.

Wheat, rye, barley, flax and fodder crops are cultivated, as are potatoes and vegetables. Dairy/beef stockbreeding, hunting of fur-bearing animals, and fur farming occur. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 59.9% cereal crops; 0.5% industrial crops; 2.0% potatoes and vegetables; and 37.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.31 grains; 10.3 potatoes; and 14.3 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 773.2 cattle, including 353.4 cows; and 508.9 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1,418.4 grains; 421.8 potatoes; 138.0 vegetables; 147.1 meat; and 870.6 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 775 km railways and 7,511 km main roads. The Irtysh is used for navigation.

ORENBURGSKAYA OBLAST

Orenburgskaya Oblast is situated in the piedmont areas of the Southern Urals. It was established on 7 December 1934 (in 1938–1957 it was Chkalovskaya oblast) with an area of 124,000 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 2,225,500 people: 72.2% Russians, 7.3% Tatars, 5.1% Kazakhs, 5.0% others, 4.7% Ukrainians, 3.2% Mordvinians, and 2.5% Bashkirs. The population density is 17.9 per km²; 63.9% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Orenburg, 524,200; Orsk, 275,100; Novotroitsk, 109,700; Buzuluk, 85,700; and Buguruslan, 54,700.

A wide belt of the oblast stretches into the southern foothills of the Urals, offshoots of the Southern Urals, and the extreme south of Transurals. In the west there are ouvals of the Obschiy Syrt; in the central part there are the Guberlinskye Mountains (heights up to 667 m); in the east are the Zauralskaya Plain and the western outskirts of Turgaiskoe Plateau. The climate is extreme continental, with little snow in winter and a hot summer. The average temperatures are: in January from –14^o to –18^oC, and in July from 19^o to 22^oC. Precipitation is 300–450 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 180 days. The main river is the Ural, with tributaries Sakmara, Orj, Bolshoi Kumak, and Ilek; through the northwest run tributaries of the Volga basin: the Samara, Kama, and Belaya. In the southeast there are enclosed lakes.

The oblast is situated mainly in the steppe zone. The soils are chiefly chernozems. In the northwest there are areas of forest-steppe with forbs, tipchak (Festuca sulcata), and feather-grass, as well as birch and oak groves; in the south and southeast occur tipchak/feather-grass steppes. “Insular” pine forests (Buzuluksky pine forest) are found. Along large river valleys there are recurrently flooded hardwood forests (urema). Forests occupy 4% of the territory. The Orenburgsky Reserve is located there.

Wheat, rye, barley, buckwheat, millet, pea, sunflower, potatoes, and vegetables are cultivated. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, goat-breeding, and poultry-raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 71.8% cereal crops; 5.7% industrial crops; 1.2% potatoes and vegetables; and 21.4% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.43 grains; 6.5 potatoes; and 15.7 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 839.6 cattle, including 385.3 cows; and 304.2 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 683.4 grains; 200.4 potatoes; 183.8 vegetables; 85.4 meat; and 769.7 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,651 km railways and 12,758 km main roads.

ORLOVSKAYA OBLAST

Orlovskaya Oblast is situated in the central area of European Russia. It was established on 27 September 1937 with an area of 24,700 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 902,600 people: 97.0% Russians and 3.0% others. The population density is 36.5 per km²; 62.5% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Orel, 342,800; Livny, 53,700; and Mtsensk, 51,000.

The oblast is situated within the boundaries of the Central Russian Plain (height up to 282 m). The topography is erosional. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January from –9^oC, and in July 18^oC. Precipitation is about 500 mm per year with the maximum in summer. The vegetative season is 190–200 days. The main river is the Oka, with tributaries Kroma, Tson, Orlik, Rybnitsa, and others. There are many ponds.

The oblast is situated in the broad-leaved forests and forest-steppe zones. The soils are mainly chernozems. The Orlovskoe Polesje National Park is located there.

Rye, wheat, oats, barley, buckwheat, millet, potatoes, and vegetables are cultivated, as are industrial crops like sugar-beet and hemp. Fruit is grown; dairy/beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, and poultry-raising occur. Pure-strain horse-breeding (Orlov trotters) also takes place. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 63.3% cereal crops, 2.3% industrial crops, 4.3% potatoes and vegetables; and 30.1% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.43 grains; 14.1 potatoes; and 15.2 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 268.3 cattle, including 123.3 cows; and 256.3 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1,104.5 grains; 622.1 potatoes; 92.0 vegetables; 56.1 meat; and 325.3 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 585 km railways and 3,869 km main roads.

PENZENSKAYA OBLAST

Penzenskaya Oblast is situated in the southeast of European Russia. It was established on 4 February 1939 with an area of 43,200 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,541,800 people: 86.2% Russians, 5.7% Mordvinians, 5.4% Tatars, and 2.7 % others. The population density is 35.7 per km²; 63.9% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Penza, 528,700; Kuznetsk, 99,100; Zarechny, 63,900; Kamenka, 44,700; and Serdobsk, 42,400.

The greater part of the oblast is occupied by Privolzhskaya Upland (up to 331 m high), which is dissected by deep valleys into separate uplands and ridges with a dense ravine/balka network. In the west is the Oksko-Donskaya Lowland. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –12^oC, and in July 19^oC. Precipitation is about 600 mm per year. The vegetative season is 126–132 days. The large rivers are the Sura, Moksha, Khoper, and Vorona.

The oblast is situated in the forest-steppe zone; in the east there is a broad-leaved forest zone. Chernozems occupy about 65% of the area; under forests lie grey forest soils. In river valleys are found meadow-chernozemic and alluvial soils. Forests (the main species are oak, birch, and pine) and bushes occupy about 23% of the territory; arable land represents 75–77%. The Privolzhskaya Lesostep Reserve is located there.

Wheat, rye, buckwheat, millet, barley, sugar-beet, hemp, potatoes, and vegetables are cultivated. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, and poultry-raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 63.1% cereal crops, 5.1% industrial crops, 3.9% potatoes and vegetables; and 27.9% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.76 grains; 10.6 potatoes; and 7.4 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 369.6 cattle, including 198.7 cows; and 216.7 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 762.0 grains; 343.1 potatoes; 151.2 vegetables; 53.4 meat; and 480.9 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 829 km railways and 5,804 km main roads.

PERMSKAYA OBLAST

Permskaya Oblast is situated on the western slopes of the Northern and Central Urals, and stretches into the west hilly plains. It was established on 3 October 1938 with an area of 160,600 km² . According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 2,669,700 people: 83.8% Russians, 7.3% others, 4.9% Tatars, and 4.0% Komi-Permyaks. The population density is 18.5 per km²; 76.6% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Perm, 1,018,100; Berezniki, 183,100; Solikamsk, 106,400; Chaikovski, 89,900; Kungur, 75,900; Lysjva, 75,800; Krasnokamsk, 58,600; and Chusovoi, 54,400.

In the east are the Urals ranges (up to 1,469 m), piedmont plateaus, and residual ridges; in the west there is the Verkhnekamskaya Upland, and in the northwest are the Severnye Uvaly. In the central part there is a low plain encompassing the Kama valley. In the Urals, piedmont karst is developed. The climate is temperate continental. Winter is snowy and long; summer is temperate and warm. The average temperatures range: in January from –15^o to –18^oC, and in July from 16^o to18^oC. Precipitation is from 450 mm per year in the southwest up to 800 mm in the northeast. The vegetative season is 145–165 days. The main river is the Kama, with tributaries Veslyana, Vishera, Yajvya, Kosjva, Chusovaya, Kosa, Injva, and Obva; the Kamskoe and Votkinskoe Reservoirs are also there.

The oblast is situated in the central and southern taiga as well as the mixed forests zones. Soils are mainly sod-podzolics, podzolics, and peats. Spruce forests are widespread, and in the south there are forests that mix broad-leaved tress with spruce, sometimes adding Siberian fir. In the southeast there is a part of Kungurskaya forest-steppe. Forests occupy more than 60% of the territory. The Basegi and Visherski Reserves are located there.

There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and poultry-raising, as well as goat-breeding and sheep-breeding. Rye, wheat, barley, and oats are cultivated, as are vegetables. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 46.0% cereal crops, 5.5% potatoes and vegetables; and 42.4% fodder crops, and others. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.04 grains; 16.5 potatoes; and 31.2 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 481.5 cattle, including 231.5 cows; and 279.8 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 486.2 grains; 904.7 potatoes; 351.2 vegetables; 97.2 meat; and 680.6 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,474 km railways and 9,251 km main roads. The Kama is used for navigation.

PRIMORSKY KRAI

Primorsky Krai is situated in the far southeast of Russia, in Primorie. It is washed by the Sea of Japan. It was established on 20 October 1938 with an area of 165.900 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 2,194,200 people: 86.9% Russians, 8.2% Ukrainians, and 4.9% others. The population density is 13.2 per km²; 77.7% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Vladivostok, 610,300; Nakhodka, 159,600; Ussuriysk, 157,600; Arseniev, 67,300; and Artem, 66,900.

The central and eastern part of the territory is occupied by Sikhote-Alyn mountain ranges (with heights up to 1,855 m); in the west are the Ussuriyskaya and Prikhanskaya Lowlands. The climate is temperate monsoon. The average temperatures are: in January from –12^oC on the seacoast to –27^oC in the continental areas. Summer is warm and humid. The average temperature in July is from 14^o to 21^oC. Precipitation is 600–900 mm per year. At the end of summer and in autumn typhoons are not rare. The vegetative season is 120–200 days. The major part of the territory is drained by the Ussury River and its tributaries. Many rivers flow directly into the Sea of Japan. In the southwest a large lake, Khanka, is located.

The krai is located in the broad-leaved zone. Soils are mainly brown-taiga, and on the plains there are podzolic and alluvial-gley soils. In the north there are forests of fir (Abies), spruce (Picea ajanesis), and larch (Larix daurica); in the south occur forests of the Mandjur type, with lianas. There are many swamps on the Prikhanskaya lowland. Forests (the main species are spruce [Picea ajanensis], Korean cedar, oak [Quercus mongolica], and chestnut) occupy 90% of the territory. The Dalnevostochniy Morskoy, Kedrovaya Pad, Lazovsky, Sikhote-Alinsky, Ussuriysky, and Khansky Reserves are located there.

Cereal crops (rice, buckwheat, oats, and wheat) and fodder crops (soy-beans, oats, barley, wheat, and potatoes) are cultivated. There are vegetable growing and gardening. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, poultry raising, fur farming (mink), and reindeer-breeding (for antlers of young Siberian stags). The structure of cultivated land in 1998 was: 38.9% cereal crops; 18.5% technical crops; 13.8% potatoes and vegetables; and 28.8% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha) in 1995 were: 0.87 grains; 8.9 potatoes; and 8.1 vegetables. Total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 128.1 cattle, including 70.2 cows; and 76.4 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 180.1 grains; 536.9 potatoes; 126.0 vegetables; 19.6 meat; and 149.1 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,566 km railways and 6,985 km main roads.

PSKOVSKAYA OBLAST

Pskovskaya Oblast is situated in the northwest of European Russia. It was established on 23 August 1944 with an area of 55,300 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 811,100 people: 94.3% Russians and 5.7% others. The population density is 14.7 per km²; 64.9% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Pskov, 202,600; Velikie Luki, 116,700; and Ostrov, 29,400.

The greater part of the oblast is a plain; in the northwest and southeast there are uplands (heights up to 338 m). The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –7^oC, and in July 17^oC. Precipitation is up to 650 mm per year. The vegetative season is 120–130 days. The largest river is the Velikaya; the large lakes are Pskov and Chudskoye Ozero; there are more than 1,500 small lakes.

The oblast is situated in the southern taiga and mixed forests zones. The soils are mainly sod-podzolic, sod-gleys, and peats. Forests (the main species are spruce, pine, birch, and aspen) occupy about 25% of the territory; arable land accounts for about 65%. The Sebezhski National Park, Izborski Natural-Architectural Reserve, and Pushkinski Reserve are located there.

Flax (flax-fiber)is cultivated, as are potatoes. Dairy stockbreeding and pig-breeding take place. Rye and fodder crops are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 21.3% cereal crops, 1.6% industrial crops; 7.6% potatoes and vegetables; and 69.6% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.88 grains; 13.3 potatoes; and 18.9 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 226.3 cattle, including 137.2 cows; and 93.1 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 97.4 grains; 246.2 potatoes; 102.6 vegetables; 28.3 meat; and 347.7 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,092 km railways and 9,925 km main roads. Chudskoe Ozero and Lake Pskov, as well as the lower course of the Velikaya River are used for navigation.

REPUBLIC OF ALTAI

Republic of Altai is situated in the Altai mountains; in the south it borders Kazakhstan, China, and Mongolia. It was established in 1922 as Oirotskaya autonomous oblast; in 1948 it was renamed Gorno-Altaiskaya Oblast. After 1991 it was the Gorno-Altaiskaya Republic, and since 1992 it has been the Republic of Altai, with an area of 92,600 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 203,100 people: 60.4% Russians, 31.0% Altaians, 5.6% Kazakhs, and 3.0% others. The population density is 2.2 per km²; 26.5% of the population is urban. The capital is Gorno-Altaisk, and has a population of 50,600 counted as of 01.01.1999.

High Katunsky, Kuraisky, Severny, and Yuzhny Chuisky mountain ridges (the highest top of Altai is Belukha mountain – 4,506 m) are divided by deeply incised valleys or wide basins, which are called “steppes” there. The climate is extreme continental. The average temperatures range: in January from –12^o to –32^oC, and in July from 9^o to 18^oC. Precipitation is from 100 mm per year in intermontane basins up to 1,000 mm in the northwest in the mountains. Rivers relate to the Katun and Biya river basins; the latter river is used for timber rafting. Teletskoe Lake is in Altai. The soils are mainly acid brownzems and mountain forest chernozemic. Forests occupy 25% of the territory: Siberian larch, cedar, fir, and spruce prevail. In the lower mountain belt are pine, birch, aspen, and poplar. In the region of Teletskoe Lake there is the Altai Reserve.

The main branch of economy is the stockbreeding of sheep, goats, and cattle. There is also reindeer-breeding (for getting the antlers of young Siberian stags). People also raise yaks, Siberian deers, and spotted deers. In Chuiskaya basin there is camel-breeding. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 16.8% cereal crops; 0.1% industrial crops; 5.2% potatoes and vegetables; and 77.9% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.63 grains; 9.8 potatoes; and 9.3 vegetables. There is beef and dairy stockbreeding. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 113.6 cattle, including 53.0 cows, and 10.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 9.6 grains; 55.5 potatoes; 15.7 vegetables; 12.0 meat; and 56.6 milk.

The length of main roads in 1998 was 2,636 km.

REPUBLIC OF BASHKORTOSTAN

The Republic of Bashkortostan is situated in Preduralye and on the slopes of the Southern Urals. It was established on 23 March 1919 as Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic; since 1992 it has been the Republic of Bashkortostan with an area of 143,600 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 4,110,300 people: 38.3% Russians, 28.4% Tatars, 21.9% Bashkirs, 4.7% others, 3.0% Chuvashs, and 2.7% Maris. The population density is 28.6 per km²; 64.6% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Ufa, 1,086,600; Sterlitamak, 263,900; Salavat, 157,600; Neftekamsk, 117,800; Oktyabrsky, 111,500; Beloretsk, 73,500; Ishimbai, 71,000; Kumertau, 69,800; and Sibai, 57,700.

In Preduralye in the west of the oblast there is an upland; in the southwest there are offshoots of the Obschiy Syrt, and in the northeast there is the Ufimskoe Plateau. Along the Belaya river there is a vast depression. In the east of the oblast there are ranges of the Southern Urals (up to 1,640 m, Yamantau mountain) with a narrow area of Transurals; in the south there is Zalairskoe Plateau. Karst is widespread. The climate is continental. The average temperatures are: in January from –14^o to –17^oC, and in July from 16^o to 20^oC. Precipitation is 300–600 mm per year. The vegetative season is 120–135 days. The main river is the Belaya.

The soils are mostly grey forest and chernozems. In Preduralye there are mixed forests (in the north), forest-steppe with birch and oak forests, and forb/feather-grass steppe. Steppe and forest-steppe partially occupy the Urals slopes; higher there are belts of oak and lime forests (in the western foothills), pine/larch and birch forests, dark coniferous taiga, and on some tops there are golets. In the Transurals, steppe and birch forest-steppe prevail. Forests occupy about 40% of the territory. The Bashkiria National Park, as well as the Bashkirsky and Shulgan-Tash Reserves are located there.

Wheat, rye, oats, barley, sugar-beet, and sunflower are cultivated. There are beef and dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, meat and wool sheep-breeding, and poultry-raising. Horse-breeding and bee-keeping are traditionally developed. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 54.3% cereal crops; 4.0% industrial crops; 3.2% potatoes and vegetables; and 38.6% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.23 grains; 9.2 potatoes; and 10.4 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 1,807.2 cattle, including 775.0 cows; and 662.3 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1,425.4 grains; 902.0 potatoes; 243.8 vegetables; 266.0 meat; and 1,634.0 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,475 km railways and 21,517 km main roads. The Belaya and the Ufa Rivers are used for navigation.

REPUBLIC OF BURYATIA

The Republic of Buryatia is situated in the southern part of Eastern Siberia, in the Transbaikal region; it borders Mongolia. It was established on 30 May 1923 as Buryat-Mongolian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. After 1958 it was called Buryat Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, and since 1992 it has been the Republic of Buryatia, with an area of 351,300 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,038,200 people: 70.0% Russians, 24.0% Buryats, 3.8% others, and 2.2% Ukrainians. The population density is 3.0 per km²; 59.8% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Ulan-Ude, 370,700; Gusinoozersk, 30,500; and Severobaikalsk, 27,700.

The topography is mainly mountainous. The territory embraces the Eastern Sayan (mountain heights up to 4,391 m, Munku-Sardyk mountain); the Baukal mountain area, with the Khamar-Daban, Ulan-Burgasy, Barguzinskiy, and Baikalsky ranges; the Selenginskoe middle mountain land; and the Vitimskoe tableland. Within these mountain systems are vast intermontane basins. The climate is extreme continental. Winter is long, frosty, and windless, with little snow; summer is short and warm. The average temperatures are: in January –24^oC, and in July 17^oC. Precipitation is about 300 mm per year. The vegetative season is 90–155 days. Permafrost is widespread. Rivers belong to the Enisei and the Lena basins. The Selenga, Barguzin, and Verkhnyaya Angara Rivers feed Baikal Lake. In the western part of the republic flow the Irkut, Kitoi, and Oka, as well as a large tributary of the Lena Vitim.

The republic is situated in the taiga, forest-steppe, and steppe zones. Podzolic type soils prevail. The forest-steppe and steppe regions contain dark grey forest soils, as well as varieties of chestnut and chernozemic soils. Larch, pine, and cedar forests occupy 65.5% of the territory. The Zabaikalsky and Tuvinsky National Parks are located there, as are the Baikalsy, Barguzinsky, and Dzherginsky Reserves.

There are beef and dairy stockbreading, sheep-breeding, pig-breeding, and poultry-raising, as well as hunting of fur-bearing animals, and fur farming. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 71.4% cereal crops; 0.1% industrial crops; 5.6% potatoes and vegetables; and 22.8% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.8 grains; 9.8 potatoes; and 13.7 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 326.7 cattle, including 143.6 cows; and 121.0 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 326.6 grains; 159.4 potatoes; 43.3 vegetables; 42.8 meat; and 160.0 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,199 km railways and 6,138 km main roads. Baikal Lake, and the Selenga and Barguzin Rivers are used for navigation.

REPUBLIC OF DAGHESTAN

The Republic of Daghestan is situated in the south of European Russia, in the east of the Northern Caucasus. It is washed by the Caspian Sea and borders Georgia and Azerbaijan. On 20 January 1921 Daghestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was established within Russia. After 1991 it became the Republic of Daghestan, with an area of 50,300 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 2,120,100 people: 27.5% Avars, 15.6% Dargins, 12.9% Kumyks, 11.3% Lezghins, 10.6% others, 9.2% Russians, 5.1% Laks, 4.3% Tabasarans, and 3.5% other Daghestan peoples. The population density is 42.1 per km²; 41.4% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Makhachkala, 332,200; Derbent, 91,300; Khasavyurt, 84,600; Kaspiysk, 68,200; and Buynaksk, 57,100.

The republic stretches along the Caspian Seacoast. The following components are singled out in the relief: Tersko-Kumskaya lowland, which is composed of alluvial deposits; the area of Vnutrenny Daghestan (Gunib plateau, etc.); and high mountain ranges of the Great Caucasus (Bazardyuzyu mountain – 4,466 m). The climate on the plains is dry, continental. Winter involves little snow, summer is hot and dry. The average temperatures are: in January from –5^oC in the north up to 1^oC on the Caspian Plain (near the Samur delta), and in July 25^oC. Precipitation is 200–400 mm per year. In the piedmont area the climate is more temperate and humid. The average temperatures are: in January –2.5^oC, and in July 23^oC. Precipitation is 350–450 mm per year. In the mountains the climate is temperate cool, in basins it is warmer. The average temperatures are: in January from –4^o to –7^oC, and in July from 15^o to 20^oC. Precipitation is 600–800 mm per year. The vegetative season is 200–240 days. The large rivers are the Terek, Sulak, and Samur.

The territory of Daghestan is situated in the semi-desert zone. On foothills and in the mountains altitudinal zonality is well manifested. Light chestnut, considerably saline brown loamy-sandy soils, and meadow-solonchak are found on plains. In river floodplains, soils are alluvial. The vegetation is mainly sagebrush/solyanki (Salsola) and sagebrush/ephemerals/grass. In the foothills, chestnut and mountain forest soils prevail. At the elevation of 500–1,600 m, there are broad-leaved forests (mainly beech and hornbeam); higher, bushes, mountain steppes, and meadows replace them. Forests and bushes occupy 9% of the territory. The Daghestan Reserve is located there.

Vegetables, fruits, and vines are grown. On the plain, irrigated agriculture is developed. There is sheep-breeding, including that in distant pastures; and beef/dairy stockbreeding. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 59.7% cereal crops; 0.8% industrial crops; 13.0% potatoes and vegetables; and 26.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.28 grains; 1.12 potatoes; and 11.3 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 606.3 cattle, including 296.2 cows; and 7.3 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 184.0 grains; 102.9 potatoes; 256.1 vegetables; 60.1 meat; and 264.3 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 516 km railways, and 7,060 km main roads.

REPUBLIC OF INGUSHETIA

The Republic of Ingushetia is situated in the south of European Russia, in Caucasia. Since 1921 it has been within the Gorskaya Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic – ASSR. In 1924, Ingush Autonomous Oblast (AO) was established within Russia; in 1934 it was united with Chechen AO into Chechen-Ingush AO which in 1936 was transformed into an ASSR. In 1944, the ASSR was abolished. In December 1992, the Republic of Ingushetia was established. The area (together with the Chechen Republic; the border between them is not demarcated) is 19,300 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 317,000 people: 74.5% Ingushs, 13.2% Russians, 10.35% Chechens, and 2.0% others. The population density is 56.9 per km²; 41.3% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Nazran, 77,000; Malgobek, 35,900; and Karabulak, 18,800.

The republic is situated in the central part of the northern slope of the Great Caucasus (heights up to 2,251 m) and the adjoining Chechen Plain. The climate is continental. The average temperatures are: in January from –3^o to –10^oC, and in July from 21^o to 23^oC. Precipitation is up to 1,200 mm per year. The vegetative season (on the plain) is 190 days. The main river is the Sunzha. The soils on the plain are mainly meadow; in river valleys they are alluvial and meadow-swamp; in the mountains they are mountain-forest and mountain-meadow. The vegetation is steppe and forest-steppe. In the mountains, up to 2,200 m, there are broad-leaved forests; at higher elevations there are subalpine and alpine meadows.

Corn, wheat, barley, oats, sugar-beet, sunflower, and potatoes are cultivated. There are cattle-breeding, and fine-fleeced sheep-breeding. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 54.7% cereal crops; 9.1% industrial crops; 8.8% potatoes and vegetables; and 27.5% fodder crops. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 38.2 cattle, including 21.0 cows. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 19.2 grains; 21.0 potatoes; 4.8 vegetables; 2.2 meat; and 43.7 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 39 km railways and 752 km main roads.

REPUBLIC OF KALMYKIA

The Republic of Kalmykia is situated in the south of European Russia. In the southeast it is washed by the Caspian Sea. It was established on 4 November 1920 as an autonomous oblast; on 20 October 1935 it was transformed into an Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic – ASSR. On 1943 it was abolished, and in 1957 it was reestablished as an autonomous oblast. After 29 July 1958 it was Kalmytskaya ASSR, and since 1990 it has been the Republic of Kalmykia. Its area is 76,100 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 316,100 people: 45.4% Kalmyks, 37.7% Russians, 8.4% others, 4.0% Dargins, 2.6% Chechens, and 1.9% Kazakhs. The population density is 4.2 per km²; 37.5% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Elista, 101,600; Lagan, 15,300; and Gorodovikovsk, 10,500.

The republic occupies the western part of the Caspian Plain, the Ergeni Upland, and the Kumo-Manychskaya depression. The climate is extreme continental. The average temperatures are: in January from –5^o to –8^oC, and in July from 23^o to 26^oC. Precipitation is from 170 mm in the east to 400 mm per year in the west. The vegetative season is 140–200 days. Surface waters are scanty, shallow salt lakes and vast brackish lagoons that half dry up in summer are widespread. The soils are mainly solonetzic browns, solonetzes, and sands. In the northern areas tipchak (Festuca sulcata)/feather-grass and sagebrush/tipchak steppes prevail;  in the southeastern areas there is semi-desert and sagebrush desert. In depressions there are reeds, couch-grass, and meadow forbs. In the Ergenei balkas there are brushwoods of willow, elm, and pine. The Chernye Zemli Reserve is located there.

There are fine-fleeced sheep-breeding and beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and horse-breeding. Fodder and cereal (wheat) crops, vegetables, and melons are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 73.9% cereal crops; 7.0% industrial crops; 0.9% potatoes, vegetables, melons, and gourds; and 18.1% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.82 grains; 3.2 potatoes; and 4.7 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 121.1 cattle, including 57.0 cows; and 55.1 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 207.1 grains; 3.9 potatoes; 8.2 vegetables; 15.8 meat; and 40.7 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 154 km railways and 2,216 km main roads.

REPUBLIC OF KARELIA

The Republic of Karelia is situated in the northwest of European Russia, bordering Finland. It is washed by the Baltic Sea. On 25 July 1923 the Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR) was established (called the Karelian-Finnish SSR from 31 March 1940 until 16 July 1956). From 1956 to 1991 it was known as the Karelian ASSR, and since 1991 it has been the Republic of Karelia. Its area is 172,400 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 771,100 people: 73.6% Russians, 10.0% Karels, 9.4% others, and 7.0% Byelorussians. The density of the population is 4.5 per km²; 73.8% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Petrozavodsk, 282,600; Kondopoga, 36,600; Segezha, 34,500; Kostomuksha, 32,400; and Sortavala, 120,500.

The republic is situated within the eastern part of the Baltic Shield. Its relief is hilly plain with strongly pronounced traces of ancient glaciation. In the west and northwest lies the Manselkya range (with a height of up to 576 m) and the West Karelian Upland. The climate is transitional from marine to continental. The average temperatures are: in February from –9^o down to –13^oC, and in July from 14 ^o to 16^oC. Precipitation is about 500 mm per year on the plain and up to 2,500 mm in the mountains. The vegetative season is from 60 days in the north up to 100 days in the south. There are more than 40,000 lakes, the largest ones are Ladozhskoe, Onezhskoe, and Vygozero.

The republic is situated in the zones of northern and middle taiga. The soils are mainly podzols and peats. Forests occupy more than half of the territory, the main species are pine, spruce, Karelian birch, alder, and aspen. There are many swamps. The Vodlozersky and Paanayarvi National Parks, and the Kandalakshsky, Kivach, and Kostomushsky Reserves are located there.

There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and poultry-raising. Fodder crops are cultivated. Fur farming takes place. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 3.5% cereal crops; 15.2% potatoes and vegetables; and 81.3% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 14.4 potatoes and 14.6 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 56.9 cattle, including 28.5 cows; and 9.4 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1.7 grains; 100.4 potatoes; 18.5 vegetables; 7.1 meat; and 82.1 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 2,101 km railways and 6,452 km main roads. Onezhskoe and Ladozhskoe Lakes, Belomosko-Baltijsky Canal, and the White Sea are used for navigation.

REPUBLIC OF KHAKASSIA

The Republic of Khakassia is situated in the south of Eastern Siberia. On 20 October 1930 Khakass Autonomous Oblast was established; since 1922 it has been the Republic of Khakassia, with an area of 61,900 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 581,400 people: 79.5% Russians, 11.1% Khakassians, 6.1% others, 2.3% Ukrainians, and 2.0% Germans. The population density is 9.4 per km²; 71.5% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Abakan, 167,900; Chernogorsk, 79,300; and Sayanogorsk, 55,800.

The republic’s mountain areas are situated in the eastern slopes of the Kuznetsky Alatau and Abakansky range, as well as on the northern slope of the Western Sayan (heights up to 2,930 m). There are plains in the Minusinskaya and Chulymo-Eniseiskaya basins. Plain areas adjoin wide river valleys and are called steppes there. The climate is extreme continental. Winter is cold with little snow (in the basins), the average temperatures in January are from –15^o to –21^oC. Summer in basins is hot (the average temperatures in July are from 17^o to 20^oC); in the piedmont and mountains it is cooler. Precipitation is from 300 mm per year in basins up to 700 mm in the mountains. The vegetative season is up to 150 days (in valleys). Large rivers are the Enisei and its left tributary the Abakan, as well as the Tom, Bely, and Cherny Iyus (the Ob basin). There are many freshwater and saltwater lakes.

The republic is situated in the steppe and forest-steppe zones; altitudinal zonality of landscapes is well pronounced. In the mountains, the soils are derno-podzolic, mountain-taiga podzolic, and mountain-tundra. In intermontane basins and partially in the piedmont, there are different types of chernozems. In the lowest parts of the basins, dry derno-cereals steppes are distributed, in the outskirts there are forb steppes and forest-steppe (a combination of steppes with larch, birch, and pine copses). Mountain-taiga forests grow up to the elevation of 1,200 m in the north, 1,600 m and higher in the south. On dry slopes of the Kuznetsky Alatau grows a light coniferous taiga of larch and pine; on the slopes of the Abakansky range and the Western Sayan there are dark coniferous forests where fir and cedar predominate. The Maly Abakan and Chazy Reserves are located there.

Cereal crops are cultivated, mainly wheat. There are beef/dairy stockbreeding and sheep-breeding. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 54.5% cereal crops, 0.1% industrial crops; 5.3% potatoes and vegetables; and 40.1% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.98 grains; 6.4 potatoes; and 24.0 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 141.4 cattle, including 65.6 cows; and 82.9 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 158.1 grains; 148.6 potatoes; 84.3 vegetables; 24.3 meat; and 134.1 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 642 km railways and 2,399 km main roads. The Enisei and Abakan are used for navigation.

REPUBLIC OF MARI EL

The Republic of Mari El is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on 4 November 1920 as Mari Autonomous Oblast; on December 5, 1936 it was transformed into the Mari Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic – ASSR. After 1990 it became the Republic of Mari El with an area of 23,200 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 761,200 people: 47.5% Russians, 43.3% Maris, 5.9% Tatars, and 3.3% others. The population density is 32.8 per km²; 62.1% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Ioshkar-Ola, 249,800; Volzhsk, 61,800; and Kozmodemyansk, 24,500.

The republic is situated in the east of the East European Plain, in the middle course of the Volga. In the east there is Vyatsky Ouval (heights up to 275 m), and karst forms of relief occur. In the west is the swamped Mari Lowland. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –13^oC, and in July 19^oC. Precipitation is 450–500 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 170 days. The main river is the Volga, with tributaries Vetluga, Bolshaya and Malaya Kokshaga, and Iletj; in the northeast there are tributaries of the Vyatka and the Cheboksarskoe Reservoir.

The republic is situated in the subtaiga zone. The soils are mainly sod-podzolic and grey forest. Mixed forests (pine, fir, spruce, birch) occupy more than half of the territory (mainly in the west and in the central areas). In river valleys there are oak-lime forests. The Mari Chobra National Park and Bolshaya Kokshaga Reserve are located there.

There are dairy-beef and dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, and poultry-raising. Barley, oats, rye, wheat, fodder crops, flax-fiber, hops, vegetables, and potatoes are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 52.3% cereal crops; 1.0% industrial crops; 7.7% potatoes and vegetables; and 39.0% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.13 grains; 17.6 potatoes; and 27.4 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 222.3 cattle, including 106.7 cows; and 178.3 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 287.1 grains; 581.7 potatoes; 84.0 vegetables; 46.2 meat; and 312.0 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 204 km railways and 3,158 km main roads. The Volga and Vetluga are used for navigation.

REPUBLIC OF MORDOVIA

The Republic of Mordovia is situated in the east of European Russia. It was established on 10 January 1930 as an autonomous oblast; on 20 December 1936 it was transformed into the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic – ASSR. Since 1990 it has been the Republic of Mordovia, with an area of 26,200 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 937,100 people: 60.8% Russians, 32.5% Mordvinians, 4.9% Tatars, and 1.8% others. The population density is 35.8 per km²; 58.5% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Saransk, 317,000; Ruzaevka, 50,800; and Kovylkino, 23,200.

The republic is located in the east of the East European Plain. The western area is occupied by Oksko-Donbskaya Plain, and the central and eastern areas by Privolzhskaya Upland (heights up to 322 m). The territory is dissected by ravines and balkas. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –11^oC, and in July 19^oC. Precipitation is about 500 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 130 days. The largest river is the Moksha and its tributaries.

The republic is situated in the zone of broad-leaved forests, with areas of forest-steppe. The soils are mainly leached chernozems and sod-podzolics. Oak-groves, combined with lime, maple, ash, and pine, occupy 27% of the territory. The other 73% is arable land. The Mordovsky Reserve is located there.

Wheat, barley, buckweet, rye, sugar-beet, potato, vegetables, and sunflower are cultivated. Fruit is grown. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, poultry-raising, and bee-keeping. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 57.4% cereal crops; 1.1% industrial crops; 5.8% potatoes and vegetables; and 35.7% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.84 grains; 12.4 potatoes; and 10.4 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 364.0 cattle, including 173.7 cows; and 181.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 529.5 grains; 381.6 potatoes; 102.8 vegetables; 55.7 meat; and 426.4 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 543 km railways and 4,126 km main roads.

REPUBLIC OF NORTH-OSSETIA – ALANIA

The Republic of North-Ossetia–Alania is situated in the south of European Russia. It was established on 7 July 1924 as an autonomous oblast; on 5 December 1936 it was transformed into the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic – ASSR. After 1990 it was the North-Ossetian SSR, and since 1991 it has been known as the Republic of North-Ossetia–Alania, with an area of 8,000 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 662,700 people: 53.0% Ossetians, 29.9% Russians, 9.7% others, 5.2% Ingushs, and 2.2% Armenians. The population density is 82.8 per km²; 69.1% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Vladikavkaz, 309,100; Mozdok, 38,600; and Beslan, 33,800.

The republic is situated on the northern slope of the Great Caucasus. Stavropolskaya Plain lies to the north, southward are the Tersky and Sunzhensky ranges, and in the central part there is Severo-Osetinskaya Plain. In the south there is Glavny or Vodorazdelny range of the Great Caucasus (the highest point is Kazbek mountain – 5,033 m). The climate is continental. On the plain the average temperatures are: in January –4.5^oC, and in July 24^oC. Temperatures in the piedmont are –4^o and 20^oC, respectively. Precipitation is 600–700 mm per year on the plain, and up to 900 mm in the piedmont. In the high mountains, it exceeds 1,000 mm. The vegetative season on the plain and in the piedmont is about 150 days. The main river is the Terek, with its tributaries Urukh, Ardon, Fiagdon, Gizeljdon, and Sunzha.

The plains are situated in the steppe and forest-steppe zones and are almost completely plowed up. In the plains, soils are chernozemic and chestnut; in the Terek valley they are alluvial meadow; and in the piedmont they are mountain forest and mountain meadow. In the Terek floodplain, hardwood forests grow. At elevations of 800–1,600 m there are broad-leaved forests with beech predominating; at 1,600–2,000 m, pine prevails; and above 2,000 m there are subalpine and alpine meadows. The Severo-Osetinsky Reserve is located there.

Wheat, corn, barley, sunflower, hemp, potatoes, and vegetables are cultivated. Fruit is grown, as are vines. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, sheep-breeding, stock-breeding, and poultry-raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 46.9% cereal crops, 5.1% industrial crops; 6.5% potatoes and vegetables; and 41.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 2.66 grains; 7.1 potatoes; and 5.2 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 128.2 cattle, including 62.4 cows; and 56.2 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 123.6 grains; 83.6 potatoes; 21.8 vegetables; 22.9 meat; and 139.3 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 144 km railways and 2,291 km main roads.

REPUBLIC OF SAKHA (YAKUTIA)

The Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) is situated in the north of Eastern Siberia, and includes the New Siberian Islands; it is washed by the Laptev Sea and the East Siberian Sea. Yakutskaya, the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR) was established on 27 April 1922; since 1991 it has been the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), with an area of 3,103,200 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,000,700 people: 50.3% Russians, 33.4% Yakuts, 9.3% others, and 7.0% Ukrainians. The population density is 0.3 per km²; 64.4% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: Yakutsk, 196,500; Neryungri, 75,100;and Mirny, 36,700.

More than a third of the territory is situated over the Arctic circle. In the west there is the Central Siberian Plateau; in the east are the Verkhoyansky and Cherskogo Ridges (heights up to 3,147 m), in the south are the Aldan Mountains and Stanovoi range. In the northern and central parts there are lowlands. The climate is extreme continental. Winter is long and severe with little snow; the average temperatures in January are from –28^oC on the coast down to –50^oC in the rest of the territory. Summer is short and warm; the average temperatures in July are from 2^oC on the coast to 19^oC in central regions. Precipitation is from 200 mm per year in Central Yakutia and in intermontane basins to 700 mm on mountain slopes. The vegetative season is 120–130 days. Permafrost is widespread. The large rivers are the Lena (with tributaries Olekma, Aldan and Vilyui), the Anabar, Olenek, Yana, Indigirka, Alazeya, and Kolyma.

A large part of the territory is situated in the central taiga zone, which northward is replaced by tundra and forest-tundra. The soils are mainly sod-calcareouses, gleysems, pales, and peats. Forests occupy about 80% of the territory. The main species are larch (Larix daurica), pine, cedar elfin wood, spruce, fir, and birch. In river valleys and alases there are meadows. On the coast and mountain tops grow bushes, grass, and lichens.

Stockbreeding prevails; in the north there is reindeer-breeding. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 273.5 cattle, including 108.0 cows; and 20.4 pigs. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 39.6% cereal crops; 19.0% potatoes and vegetables; and 41.3% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.67 grains; 6.2 potatoes; and 10.3 vegetables. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 17.1 grains; 66.9 potatoes; 28.6 vegetables; 25.9 meat; and 167.3 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 165 km railways (the mainline is Tynda– Berkakit– Neryungri) and 7,071 km main roads (the main road travels from Berkatit–Tommot–Yakutsk). The Northern Sea Route and the Lena and its tributaries are used for navigation.

REPUBLIC OF TATARSTAN

The Republic of Tatarstan is situated in the east of European Russia. It was established on 27 May 1920 as Tatar, the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR). Since 1992 it has been known as the Republic of Tatarstan, with an area of 68,000 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 3,784,000 people: 48.5% Tatars, 43.3% Russians, 4.5% others, and 3.7% Chuvashs. The population density is 55.6 per km²; 73.4% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Kazan, 1,091,500; Naberezhnye Chelny, 523,100; Nizhnekamsk, 223,700; Aljmetjevsk, 141,900; and Zelenodoljsk, 101,500.

The republic is situated in the east of the East European Plain. It is divided into three parts by the Volga and Kama river valleys: the Volga right bank, within which there is part of Privolzhskaya Upland, dissected by river valleys with ravines with steep scarps to the Volga; the Volga left bank and the Kama right bank, a gently rolling plain; and the left bank of the Kama, with northern slopes of Bugulminsko-Belebeevskaya Upland (heights up to 364 m). In the northwest there is the southern part of Vyatsky Uval. The climate is temperate continental. Average temperatures are: in January from –13^o to –18^oC, and in July from 19^o to 20^oC. Precipitation is up to 500 mm per year. The vegetative season about 170 days. The main rivers are the Volga, Kama, Belaya, and Vyatka. Kuibyshevskoe and Nizhnekamskoe Reservoirs are located there.

The republic is situated in the broad-leaved and mixed forests as well as forest-steppe zones. The soils are mainly grey forest and chernozems. Forests are mostly hardwood (oak, lime, maple), and occupy about 16% of the territory. The Nizhnyaya Kama National Park, and Volzhsko-Kamsky Reserve are located there.

Cereals (winter wheat, rye, barley, oats, buckwheat) and fodder crops, potatoes, and vegetables are cultivated. There are beef/dairy stockbreeding, sheep-breeding, pig-breeding, and poultry-raising. Fur farming and bee-keeping are present. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 54.1% cereal crops, 3.1% industrial crops; 3.6% potatoes and vegetables; and 39.3% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.64 grains; 14.1 potatoes; and 19.0 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 1,178.0 cattle, including 517.8 cows; and 684.5 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1,940.0 grains; 1,245.9 potatoes; 226.5 vegetables; 186.4 meat; and 1,490.0 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 917 km railways and 12,144 km main roads. The Volga, Kama, Vyatka, and Belaya Rivers are used for navigation.

REPUBLIC OF TUVA

The Republic of Tuva is situated in the south of East Siberia; it borders Mongolia. It became a part of the USSR on 11 October 1944 as an autonomous oblast; it was transformed into the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR) on 10 October 1961. Since 1991 it has been the Republic of Tuva. Its area is 170,500 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 310,700 people: 64.3% Tuvinians, 31.0% Russians, and 3.7% others. The population density is 1.8 per km²; 48.2% of the population is urban. The capital is Kyzyl, with a population of 98,700 people (as of 01.01.1999).

The central and western areas of the republic are occupied by Tuvinskaya basin, surrounded by Western Sayan ranges in the north, Altai in the west, and Tannu-Ola in the south. The most elevated eastern part is situated on highlands and slopes of the Eastern Sayan (heights up to 3,970 m in Mongun-Taiga massif). The climate is extreme continental. Winter is frosty and windless in basins, with little snow; the average temperatures in January are from –28^o to –35^oC. Summer is temperate warm in the mountains and hot in basins; the average temperatures in July are from 15^o to 20^oC. Precipitation is from 150 mm per year in basins up to 1,000 mm in the mountains. In the northeast, areas of permafrost occur. The vegetative season is about 150-160 days. Almost all rivers belong to the Enisei basin. The largest ones are Verkhni Enisei (Ulug-Khem) with its left tributary Khemchik, as well as the Enisei components of Bolshoi and Maly Enisei.

The republic is situated in the steppe zone. The soils are mainly chestnuts and sod-brownzems. In basins, steppe vegetation prevails and areas of pine forests occur; in large river valleys there are poplar groves. Mountain forests (cedar, larch, pine) occupy half of the territory; above 2,200 m they are replaced by mountain tundra and – more seldom – by meadows. The Azas and Ubsunurskaya Kotlovina Reserves are located there.

There are fine-fleeced sheep-breeding and beef/dairy stockbreeding. Goat-breeding, horse-breeding, camel-breeding, reindeer-breeding, and yak-breeding are also present. In Tuvinskaya basin, wheat, barley, oats, and fodder crops are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 61.0% cereal crops; 6.6% potatoes and vegetables; and 23.2% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.38 grains; 7.3 potatoes; and 6.8 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 140.1 cattle, including 84.7 cows; and 19.2 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 16.5 grains; 15.0 potatoes; 6.6 vegetables; 15.8 meat; and 53.4 milk.

The length of main roads in 1998 was 2,464 km. The Verkhni Enisei (Ulug-Khem) and the lower courses of the Bolshoi and Maly Enisei are used for navigation.

ROSTOVSKAYA OBLAST

Rostovskaya Oblast is situated in the south of European Russia, in the southwest it is washed by the Gulf of Taganrog of the Sea of Azov. It was established in September 1937, with an area of 100,800 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 4,367,900 people: 89.6% Russians, 6.2% others, and 4.2% Ukrainians. The population density is 43.3 per km²; 67.8% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Rostov-na-Donu, 1,005,800; Taganrog, 286,400; Shakhty, 222,800; Novocherkassk, 185,400; Volgodonsk, 180,200; and Novoshakhtinsk,102,200.

The oblast is situated in the southern part of the East European Plain, and partially in Ciscaucasia. The relief is mainly plain. In the west there are eastern offshoots of Donetsky Ridge (heights up to 253 m), in the north there is Donskaya Ridge, in the southeast there are gentle offshoots of Ergeni Upland, in the south there is Kumo-Manuchskaya depression. The surface of the oblast is dissected by river valleys, ravines, and balkas. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January from –9^oC in the north up to –5^oC in the south, and in July from 22^o to 24^oC. Precipitation is 450–650 mm per year. The vegetative season is 170–190 days. The main river is the Don, with its tributaries Severski Donets, Sal, and Manych.

The oblast is situated in the steppe zone. Chernozems prevail, there are also dark chestnut soils and solonchaks. Forests remain along ravines and balkas, the main species are oak, maple, ash, aspen, and elm. They occupy 6% of the territory. From 60% to 70% of the area is plowed up. The Rostovski Reserve is located there.

Wheat, barley, rice, sunflower, castor-oil plant, coriander, and mustard are cultivated. Vegetables, melons, fruit, and vines are grown. Beef/dairy stockbreeding takes place. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 57.3% cereal crops; 22.1% industrial crops; 3.6% potatoes, vegetables, and melons; and 17.1% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.5 grains; 5.8 potatoes; and 7.7 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 635.2 cattle, including 316.3 cows; and 744.9 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 2,607.4 grains; 351.2 potatoes; 316.3 vegetables; 131.0 meat; and 760.0 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,933 km railways and 10,482 km main roads. The Don, Severski Donets, Zapadny Manych, and the Sea of Azov are used for navigation.

RYAZANSKAYA OBLAST

The Ryazanskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on 26 September 1937 with an area of 39,600 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,298,300 people: 96.1% Russians and 3.9% others. The population density is 32.8 per km²; 67.2% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Ryazan, 528,800; Kasimov, 37,800; Sasovo, 32,800; Skopin, 27,900; and Ryazhsk, 25,200.

In the north is the Meshcherskaya Lowland, in the west are offshoots of the Central Russian Upland (heights up to 236 m). The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –11^oC, and in July 19^oC. Precipitation is about 550 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 180 days. The main river is the Oka, with its tributaries Pra, Gusj, Pronya, and Para, and the Moksha with its Tsna tributary. In the south of the oblast there are heads of the Voronezh River. On the Meshcherskaya Lowland there are many lakes.

The oblast is situated in the subtaiga and forest-steppe zones. Soils are sod-podzolic and grey forests in the north, and podzolized and leached on loess loam chernozems in the south; in river valleys, soils are alluvial-meadow. Forests (main species, pine and birch) occupy about 35% of the territory; arable land accounts for about 50%. The Meshcherski National Park, and the Okskij Reserve are located there.

There are beef/dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, poultry-raising, and sheep-breeding. There is also pure-strain horse-breeding. Barley, wheat, rye, oats, fodder crops, and sugar-beet are cultivated. Fruit and berries are grown. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 56.9% cereal crops; 1.5% industrial crops; 5.7% potatoes and vegetables; and 36.0% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.93 grains; 12.4 potatoes, and 14.0 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 386.9 cattle, including 187.3 cows; and 135.2 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 709.7 grains; 526.5 potatoes; 174.0 vegetables; 49.6 meat; and 480.6 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 976 km railways and 6,395 km main roads. The Oka, Moksha, and Tsna are used for navigation.

SAINT PETERSBURG

Saint Petersburg is the center of Leningradskaya Oblast, a city of federal importance, and a subject of the Russian Federation. It is situated in the northwest of European Russia on the Neva River, and contiguous to its mouth on the Neva inlet coast of the Gulf of Finland of the Baltic Sea, and on numerous islands of the ramified Neva delta. It is subject to flood danger. The area is 605.8 km². The population amounts to 4,695,400 people (as of 01.01.1999), with Russians dominating.

The climate is marine with continental features. Weather is unstable in all seasons. Winter is temperate mild; temperately frosty, mainly cloudy weather predominates. The average temperature of the coldest months (January and February) is –8^oC. Spring is late and protracted. Summer is temperate warm with alternation of sunny and rainy days; the average temperature in July is 17.8^oC. Autumn is long, cloudy, and foggy. Precipitation is about 620 mm per year, occurrring mainly in July and August.

SAKHALINSKAYA OBLAST

Sakhalinskaya Oblast is situated in the extreme east of Russia; it embraces Sakhalin and Kuril Islands. It is washed by the Sea of Okhotsk, the Sea of Japan, and the Pacific Ocean. It was established on 20 October 1932, with an area of 87,100 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 608,500 people: 81.6% Russians, 6.9% others, 6.5% Ukrainians, and 5.0% Koreans. The population density is 7.0 per km²; 85.7% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, 176,900; Kholmsk, 40,900; Korsakov, 39,100; and Okha, 29,100.

The relief is mainly mountainous. Along the coast of Sakhalin Island stretch mountains of medium height; the north of the island is a plain. The climate is temperate monsoon. The average temperatures are: in January from –6^oC in the south to –24^oC in the north, and in August from 19^oC in the south to 10^oC in the north. In mountains, precipitation is up to 1,200 mm per year, the on plains about 600 mm. The main rivers are the Tymj and Poronaj; there are many small lakes and bogs.

On plains, soils are peat-podzolic-boggy, moderately and slightly podzolic, peat, alluvial meadow-sod, and meadow-gley. In the mountains soils are nonpodzolized and weakly podzolized brownzems, and mountain podzolic. In the north there is light larch taiga; in the central part, spruce (Picea ajanensis) and fir grow; in the southwest there are broad-leaved forests with lianas (actinidia, magnolia vine, vine); in the west there is bamboo (Sasa kurilensis) undergrowth. In the mountains, birch (Betula ermanii) and cedar elfin wood grow. In the north of Sakhalin the Poronaisky Reserve is located; on Kunashir Island there is the Kurilsky Reserve.

Potatoes, vegetables, and fodder crops are cultivated. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding, poultry-raising, and fur farming; in the north there is reindeer-breeding. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 34.2% potatoes and vegetables; and 65.8% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 10.8 potatoes and 12.2 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 were: 26.5 cattle, including 12.2 cows; and 13.9 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 154.0 potatoes; 44.5 vegetables; 3.0 meat, and 32.0 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 957 km railways and 1,808 km main roads.

SAMARSKAYA OBLAST

Samarskaya Oblast is situated in the southeast of European Russia. It was established on 14 May 1928 as Srednevolzhskaya Oblast; after 1929 it was Srednevolzhsky Krai. After 1935 it was Kujbyshevsky Krai, and from 1936 to 1990 it was Kujbyshevskaya Oblast. The area is 53,600 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 3,305,300 people: 83.4% Russians, 3.6% Chuvashs, 3.6% Mordvinians, 3.5% Tatars, 3.5% others, and 2.5% Ukrainians. The population density is 61.7 per km²; 80.6% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Samara, 1,170,800; Tolyatti, 719,100; Syzranj, 187,000; Novokujbyshevsk, 115,900; Chapaevsk, 83,100.

The oblast is situated in the southeast of the East European Plain, in the middle course of the Volga, where it forms an arched meander – Samarskaya Luka. It is divided into right bank and left bank parts. The right bank part is occupied by Privolzhskaya Upland, which is crossed by ravines and balkas; in the northern part of Samarskaya Luka there are the Zhiguli Mountains (up to 370 m). As for the left bank part, in the northwest Nizkoe Zavolzhje is situated, and in the northeast there is Vysokoe Zavolzhje. In the south there is a gently sloping–rolling plain, which in the southeast transforms into Obshchij Syrt Upland. The climate is continental and arid. The average temperatures are: in January –13^oC, and in July 21^oC. Precipitation is about 400 mm per year. The vegetative season is 180 days. The main river is the Volga, with its tributaries Usa, Syzranj, Bolshoj Cheremshan, Sok, Samara, and Bolshoi Irgiz. Kuybyshevskoe and Saratovskoe Reservoirs are there.

The oblast is situated in the forest-steppe and steppe zones. The soils are mainly chernozems and dark chestnuts. Forests occupy about 12% of the territory, in the Zhiguli and on divides there are mainly broad-leaved (oak, lime, maple) forests, on sandy soils of the Volga left bank and along the Samara River there are pine forests. In the southern part of the oblast there are feather-grass/tipchak (Festuca sulcata) steppes which are almost completely plowed up. In river floodplains there are flow meadows. The Samarskaya Luka National Park and Zhigulevsky Reserve are located there.

Wheat, millet, rye, barley, oats, buckwheat, and sunflower are cultivated. There are beef/dairy stockbreeding, and mutton/wool sheep-breeding. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 64.9% cereal crops; 11.5% industrial crops; 3.1% potatoes and vegetables; and 20.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.86 grains; 7.6 potatoes, and 10.8 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 471.7 cattle, including 230.3 cows; and 344.0 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 647.5 grains; 400.3 potatoes; 170.4 vegetables; 95.3 meat; and 669.8 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,388 km railways and 7,047 km main roads. The Volga is used for navigation.

SARATOVSKAYA OBLAST

Saratovskaya Oblast is situated in the southeast of European Russia. It was established on 10 January 1934, with an area of 100,200 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 2,719,000 people: 85.6% Russians, 7.9% others, 3.8% Ukrainians, and 2.7% Kazakhs. The population density is 27.1 per km²; 73.4% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Saratov, 878,800; Balakovo, 208,200; Engels, 189,900; Balashov, 95,300; Volsk, 70,900; and Rtishchevo, 43,300.

The oblast is situated in the southeast of the East European Plain, in Nizhnee Zavolzhje. It is divided by the Volga into two parts: western (right bank) and eastern (left bank; Zavolzhje). The right bank is occupied mainly by Privolzhskaya Upland (up to 370 m). On the left bank there is a slightly high plain dissected by dry hollows and balkas and limited in the east by the Obshchij Syrt offshoots. In the southern part of Zavolzhje there is Prikaspijskaya Lowland. The climate is continental. The average temperatures are: in January –12^oC, and in July 22^oC. Precipitation is from 250 mm per year in the southeast up to 450 mm in the northwest. The vegetative season is 125–150 days. The main river is Volga, with its tributaries Tereshka and Bolshoi Irgiz; the are Volgogradskoe and Saratovskoe Reservoirs are there. In the west lie the Khoper and the Medveditsa Rivers, tributaries of the Don.

The oblast is situated in the forest-steppe, steppe, and semi-desert zones. The soils are mainly dark chestnut, and solonetzes. Steppes are almost completely plowed up. Forests (elm, oak, birch, lime) occupy 5% of the territory and are situated mainly in the northeast right bank as well as in floodplains. The Khvalynsky National Park is located there.

Cereal crops (wheat, rye, etc.), industrial crops (sunflower, sugar-beet), and fodder crops are cultivated. There are beef/dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, and poultry-raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 72.0% cereal crops, 9.4% industrial crops; 1.3% potatoes and vegetables; and 17.3% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.44 grains; 9.3 potatoes; and 22.5 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 716.6 cattle, including 343.4 cows; and 410.2 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1,229.3 grains; 139.4 potatoes; 164.3 vegetables; 128.7 meat; and 972.2 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 2,312 km railways and 9,828 km main roads. The Volga is used for navigation. 

SMOLENSKAYA OBLAST

Smolenskaya Oblast is situated in the west of European Russia. It was established on 27 September 1937, with an area of 49,800 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,142,700 people: 94.1% Russians and 5.9% others. The density of the population is 22.9 per km²; 69.5% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Smolensk, 352,700; Vyazma, 60,200; Roslavl, 59,300; Yartsevo, 57,400; and Safonovo, 53,600.

The greater part of the oblast is situated within Smolensko-Moskovskaya and Vyazemskaya Upland (up to 319 m). In some areas, the relief is rolling and hilly with comparatively deeply incised river valleys. In other parts of the territory there are lowlands and in the northwest there are moraine ridges. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –9^oC, and in July 17^oC. Precipitation is about 600 mm per year, maximum in summer. The vegetative season is about 180 days. The main river is the Dnieper, with its tributaries Sozh, Desna, Vopj, and Vyazjma; in the northwest there are many lakes.

The oblast is situated in the mixed forests zone. Forests (aspen, birch, alder, spruce) occupy about 40% of the territory. The soils are sod-podzolics. The Smolenskoe Poozerje National Park is located there.

There are dairy-beef stockbreeding and pig-breeding as well as horse-breeding (trotter breed). Barley, oats, rye, and flax-fiber are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 33.2% cereal crops; 0.7% industrial crops; 5.8% potatoes and vegetables; and 60.3% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.02 grains; 16.1 potatoes, and 22.4 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 318.6 cattle, including 182.8 cows; and 139.4 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 188.6 grains; 216.9 potatoes; 102.1 vegetables; 41.9 meat; and 475.0 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,259 km railways and 8,819 km main roads. The Dnieper is used for navigation.

STAVROPOLSKY KRAI

Stavropolsky Krai is situated in the south of European Russia, in Ciscaucasia. It was established on 13 February 1924 as Yugo-Vostochnaya Oblast (Krai); from 1924 to 1937 it was called Severo-Kavkazsky Krai; and from 13 March 1937 to 12 January 1943 it was Ordzhonikidzevsky Krai. Its area is 66,500 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 2,659,900 people: 84.1% Russians, 10.5% others, 2.9% Armenians, and 2.6% Ukranians. The population density is 40.0 per km²; 53.6% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Stavropol, 343,500; Nevinnimysk, 132,200; Pyatigorsk, 128,600; and Kislovodsk, 112,700.

The greater part of the krai is occupied by Stavropolskaya Upland, in the east it is replaced by Tersko-Kumskaya Lowland, and in the north is the Kumo-Manychskaya depression. In the belt of foothills region of Caucasian Mineral Waters, isolated mountains (like Beshtau mountain – 1,401 m) are distinguished. The climate is continental. The average temperatures are: in January –4^oC, and in July from 20^o to 25^oC. Precipitation is 300–650 mm per year. The vegetative season is 207–220 days. The main rivers are the Kuban and Kuma,  with Podkumok, Kalaus, and Egorlyk.

The krai is situated mainly in the steppe and semi-desert zones. The soils are mainly chernozems. Forbs/cereals steppes prevail, in the east and northeast there is sagebrush/cereal vegetation with solonetzs and solonchaks. Steppes are mainly plowed up. On high areas of Stavropolskaya Upland there are massifs of oak/hornbeam forests (areas of forest-steppe).

Wheat, corn, sunflower, and sugar-beet are cultivated; fruits and vines are grown. Fine-fleeced sheep-breeding and dairy/beef stockbreeding are present. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 59.4% cereal crops; 14.2% industrial crops; 2.7% potatoes and vegetables; and 23.7% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 2.25 grains; 5.4 potatoes; and 6.6 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 446.4 cattle, including 212.3 cows; and 510.9 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 3,292.8 grains; 285.3 potatoes; 137.4 vegetables; 121.0 meat; and 524.9 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 94 km railways and 7,447 km main roads.

SVERDLOVSKAYA OBLAST

Sverdlovskaya Oblast is situated in the Urals. It was established on 17 January 1934, with an area of 194,800 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 4,631,000 people: 88.7% Russians, 7.4% others, and 3.9% Tatars. The population density is 23.8 per km²; 87.6% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Ekaterinburg, 1,270,700; Nizhni Tagil, 395,400; Kamensk-Uralski, 191,100; Pervouralsk, 135,700; Serov, 100,000; and Asbest, 81,300.

The oblast occupies mainly the eastern slopes of the Central and Northern Urals and the contiguous outskirts of the West-Siberian Plain (Transurals). In the southwest lies the ouval-hilly and slightly uphilled Preduralje (up to 1,569 m high). The climate is continental. Winter is cold and long; the average temperatures in January are: on the plains of the Transurals from –20^oC in the north up to –15^oC in the south. Summer is temperate and warm – hot in the southeast. The average temperatures in July are from 16^oC in the north up to 19^oC in the southeast. Precipitation is from 350 mm per year in the southeast up to 500 mm in the north and 600 mm in the mountains. The vegetative season is 130 days. The main rivers are the Tavda, with Pelym, Sosjva, Lozjva, Tura, Isetj, Chusovaya, and Ufa.

The oblast is situated in the central and southern taiga, as well as mixed forests zones. The soils are mainly sod-podzolics and brownzems. In the mountain areas, dark coniferous taiga (mainly spruce) prevails. North of the Transurals there are pine forests; in the lowlands there is spruce taiga with the addition of cedar; southward there is a belt of aspen-birch and pine forests. In Preduralje there are places where forest-steppe and broad-leaved/spruce forests prevail. Forests occupy 61% of the territory. Priishtymskie Bory National Park and the Visimsky and Denezhkin Kamenj Reserves are located there.

Dairy and dairy/beef stockbreeding, poultry-raising, pig-breeding, goat-breeding, and sheep-breeding take place. Fodder crops, wheat, barley, and oats are cultivated, as well as potatoes and vegetables. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 44.8% cereal crops; 7.7% potatoes and vegetables; and 47.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.59 grains; 15.1 potatoes; and 18.8 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 476.6 cattle, including 237.4 cows; and 297.8 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 595.8 grains; 974.0 potatoes; 268.0 vegetables; 120.7 meat; and 742.0 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 3,551 km railways and 10,107 km main roads. The Tavda River and its tributaries Lozjva and Sosjva, as well as the Tura River, are used for navigation.

TAIMYR (DOLGANO-NENETS) AUTONOMOUS OKRUG

Taimyr (Dolgano-Nenets) Autonomous Okrug is a subject of the Russian Federation within the structure of Krasnoyarsky Krai. It is situated in Krainy Sever of Eastern Siberia over the Arctic circle. It includes the islands of Severnaya Zemlya as well as Nordensheld and other archipelagos, and is washed by the Kara and Laptev seas. It was established on 30 December 1930 with an area of 862,100 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 44,300 people: 67.1% Russians, 9.6% others, 8.8% Dolgans, 8.6% Ukrainians, 4.4% Nenets, and 1.5% Nganasans. The population density is 0.05 per km²; 65.0% of the population is urban. The administrative center is Dudinka (27,200 people as of 01.01.1999).

The okrug occupies Taimyr peninsula, the greater part of the North Siberian Plain, and the northern part of the Central Siberian Plateau (heights up to 1,629 m on Putoran Plateau). In the southwest, on the left bank of the Enisei, lies part of the West Siberian Plain. The climate is arctic and subarctic. Winter is severe and long (up to 10 months), summer is cold. The average temperatures are: in January –32^oC, and in July from 2^o to 13^oC. Precipitation is about 250 mm per year. The vegetative season is 40–80 days. Permafrost is widespread. The main rivers are the Enisei, Pyasina, Khatanga, and Taimyra. There are many lakes and swamped areas.

The soils are gleyzems, tundra podburs, Arctic cryozems, and peats. In the north of the okrug there are Arctic and high mountain deserts and semi-deserts; in the middle part there is tundra vegetation; in the south there is forest-tundra with light larch forests and bushes. The Putoransky and Taimyrsky Reserves are located there.

Reindeer-breeding, hunting of fur-bearing animals, and fur farming take place there. Beef/dairy stockbreeding and poultry-raising are insignificant. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 0.1 meat; and 0.1 milk.

The length of main roads is 262 km. The Enisei and Khatanga Rivers and the Northern Sea Route are used for navigation.

TAMBOVSKAYA OBLAST

Tambovskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on 27 September 1937 with an area of 34,300 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,283,700 people: 97.2% Russians and 2.8% others. The population density is 37.4 per km²; 57.4% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Tambov, 314,100; Michurinsk, 119,200; Morshansk, 49,200; and Rasskazovo, 48,600.

The oblast occupies the central part of Oksko-Donskaya Plain (heights up to 219 m). The relief is gentle-rolling, dissected by balkas and ravines. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –11^oC, and in July 20^oC. Precipitation is about 500 mm per year. The vegetative season is 175–185 days. There are rivers of the Volga: the Tsna with its tributaries, and the Don (Vorona, Voronezh, Savala, Bityug) basins.

The oblast is situated in the forest-steppe zone. The soils are meadow-chernozemics, and chernozems. Forests (the main species are pine, oak, maple, lime, ash, birch, and aspen) occupy about 10% of the territory. Arable land represents up to 70%. The Voroninsky Reserve is located there.

Wheat, rye, barley, sugar-beet, sunflower, and potato are cultivated. Gardening is present. There are dairy-beef stockbreeding; pig-breeding; sheep-breeding, and poultry-raising. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 58.4% cereal crops, 13.7% industrial crops; 5.0% potatoes and vegetables; and 22.9% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.94 grains; 12.3 potatoes; and 13.3 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 294.1 cattle, including 154.1 cows; and 295.7 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1,320.0 grains; 415.3 potatoes; 180.8 vegetables; 65.8 meat; and 355.0 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 736 km railways and 5,060 km main roads. The Tsna is used for navigation.

TOMSKAYA OBLAST

Tomskaya Oblast is situated in the southeast of West Siberia. It was established on 13 August 1944 with an area of 316,900 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,072,200 people: 88.2% Russians, 9.2% others, and 2.6 % Ukrainians. The population density is 3.4 per km²; 65.7% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Tomsk, 481,100; Seversk, 119,000; and Strezhevoi, 44,000.

Flat, very swamped territories of the West Siberian Plain prevail; only in the southeast are there northern offshoots of the Kuznetsky Alatau (up to 211 m). The wide Ob valley divides the oblast into two almost equal parts: the left bank which includes the swamped Vasyuganskaya Plain, and the higher right bank. The climate is continental. Winter is severe and long; the average temperatures in January are from  –19^o to –21^oC. Summer is warm and short; the average temperature in July is from 17^o to 18^oC. Precipitation is 450–700 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 125 days. The main river is the Ob, with tributaries Tom, Chulym, Ketj, Tym, Chaya, Parabel, and Vasyugan.

The oblast is situated in the central and southern taiga and partially mixed forests zones. The soils are mainly high moor peats, sod-gleys, and podzolic. Forests (the main species are birch, pine, cedar, aspen, fir, and spruce) occupy about 54% of the territory.

Wheat, rye, and barley are cultivated. Beef/dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and poultry-raisin occur, as well as hunting of fur-bearing animals and fur farming. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 53.4% cereal crops, 0.2% industrial crops; 5.3% potatoes and vegetables; and 41.2% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.51 grains; 13.1 potatoes; and 20.1 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 182.7 cattle including 84.7 cows; and 132.2 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 326.3 grains; 286.6 potatoes; 84.1 vegetables; 29.3 meat; and 205.2 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 346 km railways and 3,338 km main roads. The Ob, Chulym, and Tom are used for navigation.

TULSKAYA OBLAST

Tulskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on 26 September 1937 with an area of 25,700 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,763,400 people: 95.4% Russians and 4.6% others. The population density is 68.6 per km²; 81.2% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Tula, 509,600; Novomoskovsk, 139,000; Aleksin, 70,300; Schekino, 65,100; Uzlovaya, 60,300; and Efremov, 54,100.

The relief is a gentle rolling erosional plain in the north of the Central Russian Upland (heights up to 293 m). The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –10^oC, and in July 19^oC. Precipitation is about 500 mm per year. The vegetative season is around 180–190 days. Most of the rivers belong to the Oka basin, excluding the upper course of the Don.

The oblast is situated in the broad-leaved forests and forest-steppe zones. The soils are leached chernozems, and grey forests. Oak and pine forests occupy from 10 to 50% of the territory in some places; arable land accounts for from 20% in the north to 70% in the south.

Beef/dairy stockbreeding, poultry-raising, and pig-breeding occur. Wheat, rye, buckwheat, sugar-beet, and potatoes are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 57.0% cereal crops, 2.3% industrial crops; 6.8% potatoes and vegetables; and 33.8% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.54 grains; 17.2 potatoes; and 19.2 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 322.2 cattle including 162.8 cows; and 223.5 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 782.6 grains; 750.0 potatoes; 185.8 vegetables; 59.8 meat; and 398.1 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,103 km railways and 5,076 km main roads. The Oka is used for navigation.

TVERSKAYA OBLAST

Tverskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on 29 January 1935, and until 1990 had been called Kalininskaya Oblast. Its area is 84,100 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,613,500 people: 93.5% Russians, 5.1% others, and 1.4% Karelians. The population density is 19.2 per km²; 72.2% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Tverj, 451,900; Rzhev, 68,800; Vyshni Volochek, 60,600; Kimry, 59,300; Torzhok, 50,300; and Konakovo, 44,300.

The oblast is situated in the central part of the East European Plain. The surface is plain with alternation of moraine hilly uplands and outwash depressions. In the west lies Valdaiskaya Upland (up to 346 m), and in the southeast is Privolzhskaya Lowland. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –9^oC, and in July 17^oC. Precipitation is about 650 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 190 days. The main river is the Volga, with its tributaries Selizharovka, Tvertsa, Medveditsa, and Mologa. There are more than 500 lakes, including the Seliger and the Volgo. The Ivanjkovskoe, Uglichskoe, Rybinskoe, and Vyshnevolotskoe Reservoirs are located there, as well.

The oblast is situated in the south-taiga and subtaiga zones. The soils are sod-podzolics, podzols, and peats. Spruce and pine forests occupy 50% of the territory. The Tsentralno-Lesnoi Reserve is located there.

Dairy/beef stockbreeding, sheep-breeding, and poultry-raising take place. Flax-fibers, potatoes, vegetables, and fodder crops are also cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 31.8% cereal crops, 3.3% industrial crops; 5.4% potatoes and vegetables; and 59.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.9 grains; 15.5 potatoes; and 26.3 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 417.3 cattle, including 216.0 cows; and 175.4 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 252.2 grains; 587.9 potatoes; 229.7 vegetables; 57.8 meat; and 550.6 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,789 km railways and 14,830 km main roads. The Volga River and Seliger Lake are used for navigation.

TYUMENSKAYA OBLAST

Tyumenskaya Oblast is situated in the north of West Siberia; in the north it is washed by the Kara Sea. Within the confines of the oblast lie subjects of the Russian Federation: Khanty-Mansi and Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrugs. It was established on 14 August 1944 with an area of 1,435,200 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 3,243,500 people: 72.6% Russians, 11.7% others, 8.4% Ukrainians, and 7.3% Tatars. The population density is 2.3 per km²; 76.3% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Tyumen, 502,500; Tobolsk, 98,000; Ishim, 61,100; and Yalutorovsk, 37,600.

The oblast is situated mainly on the West Siberian Plain. In the west lie the slopes of Severny, Pripolyarny, and the Polyarny Urals (Narodnaya mountain  –  1,895 m). The plain part is very swamped, and there are many lakes. The climate is continental. In the north winter is long (8–10 months). The average temperatures are: in January from –29^oC, and in July from 4^o to 15^oC. In the central part the average temperatures are: in January –23^oC, and in July from 16^o to 18^oC; in the south, they are –19^o and 19^oC, respectively. Precipitation is 200–600 mm per year. In the north, permafrost is widespread. The vegetative season in the southern part is 50–162 days. The main rivers are the Ob (with the Irtysh), the Taz, Pur, and Nadym. There are many lakes.

The soils are mainly high moor peats, solonetzic and solonchakous meadows, and pine forest sands. Vegetation in the north is tundra and forest tundra; southward it is taiga (pine, fir, cedar, spruce, and larch), transforming into forest-steppe with birch kolkis. Forests and bushes occupy 21% of the territory. There are considerable areas of swamped and solonchaks meadows. The Verkhnetazovsky, Malaya Sosjva, and Yugansky Reserves are located there.

Dairy/beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, and goat-breeding occur. In the north, residents engage in reindeer-breeding, fur farming, and hunting of fur-bearing animals. In the southern areas, rye, wheat, oats, barley, fodder crops, potatoes, and vegetables are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 56.3% cereal crops, 2.0% industrial crops; 4.2% potatoes and vegetables; and 37.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.82 grains; 18.1 potatoes, and 17.2 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 384.7 cattle, including 188.6 cows, and 351.4 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 864.6 grains; 520.9 potatoes; 105.3 vegetables; 82.5 meat; and 521.1 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 2,451 km railways and 8,709 km main roads. The Ob, Irtysh, Tobol, and Tura are used for navigation.

UDMURT REPUBLIC

Udmurt Republic is situated in the western part of the Central Urals, between the Kama and Vyatka Rivers. It was established in November 1920 as Votskatya Autonomous Oblast; on 28 December 1934 it was transformed into the Udmurt Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR). Since 1990 it has been the Udmurt Republic. The area is 42,100 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,632,600 people: 58.9% Russians, 30.9% Udmurts, 6.9% Tatars, and 3.3% others. The population density is 38.8 per km²; 69.7% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Izhevsk, 654,900; Glazov, 106,300; Sarapul, 106,200; and Votkinsk, 102,003.

The relief is hilly plain dissected by river valleys and ravines. In the north lies Verkhnekamskaya Upland (heights up to 330 m); in the west there are poorly drained and in some places swamped lowlands; in the south there are uplands. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January from –14^o to –15⁰C, and in July from 17^o to 19^oC. Precipitation is 400–600 mm per year. The vegetative season is about 150 days. The main rivers are Kama and tributaries of Vyatka; the Votkinskoe Reservoir also lies there.

The republic is situated in the southern taiga and mixed forests zones. The soils are mainly sod-podzolics and grey forest. Forests (spruce, fir, pine, larch, birch, lime, and aspen) occupy about 40% of the territory.

Dairy/beef stockbreeding, pig-breeding, poultry-raising, and sheep-breeding all occur, as does bee-keeping. Rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, fodder crops, potatoes, flax-fiber, and vegetables are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 49.8% cereal crops, 0.5% industrial crops; 4.8% potatoes and vegetables; and 44.9% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.09 grains; 15.3 potatoes, and 18.6 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 469.5 cattle, including 207.2 cows; and 289.4 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 526.7 grains; 597.0 potatoes; 148.7 vegetables; 77.5 meat; and 590.9 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 776 km railways and 5,064 km main roads. The Kama is used for navigation.

ULYANOVSKAYA OBLAST

Ulyanovskaya Oblast is situated in the southeast of European Russia, in Central Povolzhje. It was established on 19 January 1943 with an area of 37,300 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,472,100 people: 72.8% Russians, 11.4% Tatars, 8.3% Chuvashs, 4.4% Mordvinians, and 3.1% others. The population density is 39.5 per km²; 72.6% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Ulyanovsk, 670,200; and Dmitrovgrad, 136,700.

The Volga divides the oblast into the high right bank and the low left bank (Zavolzhje). The right bank is occupied by Privolzhskaya Upland (up to 363 m), on the left bank lies a gently ouval plain. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –13^oC, and in July 19^oC. Precipitation is about 400 mm per year. The vegetative season is 174 days. The main river is the Volga, with its tributaries Sura, Sviyaga, and others. The Kuybyshevskoe Reservoir is also situated here.

The oblast is situated in the forest-steppe and broad-leaved forests zones. The soils are mainly leached chernozems and sod-podzolics. Forests occupy 25% of the territory. In the northwest there are large massifs of oak forests that include lime and maple; in Zavolzhje there are meadow steppes and pine forests.

Beef/dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and sheep-breeding occur, as does bee-keeping. Wheat, rye, millet, buckwheat, and sugar-beet are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 60.8% cereal crops, 5.1% industrial crops; 3.5% potatoes and vegetables; and 30.6% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.82 grains; 8.8 potatoes; and 9.9 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 342.0 cattle, including 168.9 cows; and 219.8 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 461.7 grains; 263.7 potatoes; 105.6 vegetables; 49.1 meat; and 425.8 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 709 km railways and 4,637 km main roads. The Volga is used for navigation.

UST-ORDA BURYAT AUTONOMOUS OKRUG

Ust-Orda Buryat Autonomous Okrug is a subject of the Russian Federation within Irkutskaya Oblast. It is situated in the south of Eastern Siberia. It was established on 26 September 1937 with an area of 22,400 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 143,200 people: 56.5% Russians, 36.3% Buryats, 3.2% Tatars, 2.3% others, and 1.7% Ukrainians. The population density is 6.4 per km²; there is no urban population. The administrative center is Ust-Ordynsky settlement.

The okrug is situated in Predbaikalje, within the limits of Leno-Angarskoe Plateau. The heights there are above 1,000 m. The surface is very dissected by river valleys. The climate is extreme continental. Winter is cold with little snow. The average temperatures are: in January –22^oC, and in July 17^oC. Precipitation is about 300 mm per year. The vegetative season is 110–125 days. The large river is the Angara; in the extreme northeast there are rivers of the Lena basin. The Bratskoe Reservoir is situated there. A great part of the territory is situated within forest-steppe. The soils are weakly-unsaturated brownzems and taiga podburs. Forests (pine and larch) occupy about 20% of the territory.

Dairy/beef stockbreeding, sheep-breeding, pig-breeding, and horse-breeding all occur. Wheat is cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 53.2% cereal crops, 0.1% industrial crops; 3.3% potatoes and vegetables; and 43.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.25 grains; 14.7 potatoes; and 16.7 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 137.8 cattle, including 61.0 cows; and 60.9 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 247.7 grains; 156.6 potatoes; 20.9 vegetables; 18.9 meat; and 144.4 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 30 km railways and 2,196 km main roads. The Angara is used for navigation.

VLADIMIRSKAYA OBLAST

Vladimirskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia in the interfluve of the Volga and the Oka. It was established on 14 August 1944 with an area of 29,000 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,617,700 people: 95.8% Russians and 4.2% others. The population density is 55.8 per km²; 59.8% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Vladimir, 336,100; Kovrov, 161,900; Murom, 141,400; Gus-Khrustalny, 73,500; and Aleksandrov, 65,900.

The relief is a slightly rolling plain. In the northwest lies Smolensko-Moskovskaya Upland; Vladimirskoe opolje (heights up to 236 m) lies in the central part; in the south lies Mescherskaya Lowland. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –11^oC, and in July 17⁰C. Precipitation is about 500 mm per year (the maximum in summer). The vegetative season is about 170 days. Rivers belong to the Volga basin and include the Oka and Klyazma.

The oblast is situated in the subtaiga zone. The soils are sod-podzolics, boggy peats, and light-grey forests. Forest – mainly pine and spruce – occupy 42% of the territory. The Meschera National Park is located there.

Beef/dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, goat-breeding; and horse-breeding (Vladimir heavy draft-horses) occur. Wheat, rye, barley, and oats are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 35.2% cereal crops; 0.3% industrial crops; 13.1% potatoes and vegetables; and 52.5% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.8 grains; 8.1 potatoes; and 22.3 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 232.2 cattle, including 110.8 cows; and 79.8 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 186.0 grains; 527.7 potatoes; 213.6 vegetables; 35.4 meat; and 356.2 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 928 km railways and 5,509 km main roads. The Oka and the Klyazma (in the lower course) are used for navigation.

VOLGOGRADSKAYA OBLAST

Volgogradskaya Oblast is situated in the southeast of the East European plain. It was established on 10 January 1934 as Stalingradsky Krai. Since 1936 it has been an oblast, with an area of 113,900 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 2,693,000 people: 89.1% Russians, 7.8% others, and 3.1% Ukrainians. The population density is 23.6 per km²; 74.0% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Volgograd, 995,800; Volzhsky, 287,200; and Kamyshin, 126,700.

The territory is divided by the Volga into two parts: a high right bank (heights up to 358 m), and low a left bank (Zavolzhje). The climate is continental, with cold, dry winters, and hot, dry summers. The average temperatures are: in January from –8^o to –12^oC, and in July from 22^o to 24^oC. Precipitation is about 350 mm per year. The vegetative season is 150–175 days. The main rivers are the Volga and the Don with their tributaries. The Volgograzskoe and Tsimlyanskoe Reservoirs are located here. In Zavolzhje there are the Elton and Baskunchak salt lakes as well as many brackish lagoons.

The oblast is situated mainly in the steppe zone and partially in semi-desert. The soils are mainly southern chernozems and meadowish solonetzes. Forb steppes, which have been mostly plowed up, are replaced by sagebrush/grass semi-deserts in the southeast. Oak and maple forests are mainly distributed in river valleys and occupy 4% of the territory.

Cereal, oil-bearing crops, and vegetables are cultivated. Cattle-breeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding, and poultry-raising occur. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 64.9% cereal crops; 15.9% industrial crops; 2.6% potatoes and vegetables; and 16.6% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 0.56 grains; 7.6 potatoes; and 10.7 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 567.7 cattle, including 263.6 cows; and 620.2 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 998.6 grains; 209.6 potatoes; 251.7 vegetables; 127.3 meat; and 597.6 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,619 km railways and 8,467 km main roads. The Volga and Don Rivers and reservoirs are used for navigation.

VOLOGODSKAYA OBLAST

Vologodskaya Oblast is situated in the northwest of European Russia. It was established on 23 September 1937 with an area of 145,700 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,328,100 people: 96.5% Russians and 3.5% others. The population density is 9.1 per km²; 67.5% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Vologda, 301,300; Cherepovets, 323,600; Sokol, 45,400; and Veliky Ustyug, 35,700.

Morainal lake topography prevails, with heights up to 304 m. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –14^oC, and in July 18^oC. Precipitation is about 500 mm per year. The vegetative season is from 110 days in the northeast up to 130 days in the south of the oblast. The main rivers are Sukhona (with tributaries Dvinitsa and Vologda), Yug, and the Mologa with Sheksna. Rybinskoe and Cherepovetskoe Reservoirs are located there; the large lakes are: Onezhskoe, Beloe, Kubenskoe, and Vozhe.

The oblast is situated in the zone of middle and southern taiga. The soils are mainly sod-podzolics, podzolics, and high moor peats. Forests occupy about 66% of the territory, more than three-fifths of which are coniferous (mainly spruce). The Russky Sever National Park and the Darvinsky Reserve are located there.

Dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, and sheep-breeding take place. Rye, wheat, oats, and fodder grasses are cultivated, and flax is grown. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 25.8% cereal crops; 1.0% industrial crops; 6.4% potatoes and vegetables; and 66.7% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.1 grains; 21.8 potatoes; and 25.1 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 329.8 cattle, including 164.0 cows; and 184.6 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 171.5 grains; 422.9 potatoes; 148.3 vegetables; 55.9 meat; and 478.5 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 768 km railways and 11,472 km main roads. The Volga-Baltic waterway, and the  Severo-Dvinskaya water system are used for navigation.

VORONEZHSKAYA OBLAST

Voronezhskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on June 13, 1934 with an area of 52,400 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 2,471,700 people: 93.4% Russians, 5.0% Ukrainians, and 1.6% others. The population density is 47.2 per km²; 61.4% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Voronezh, 903,800; Borisoglebsk, 65,100; Rossosh’, 63,500; and Liski, 55,400.

The oblast is situated on both sides of the Don middle course. In the west there are slopes of the Central Russian Upland, which is a strongly dissected plain (heights up to 268 m) with a dense network of gulches and balkas; in the east there is Oksko-Donskaya plain, and in the southeast there is Kalachskaya Upland. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –9^oC, and in July 20^oC. Precipitation is about 500 mm per year (the maximum is in summer). The southern part of the oblast is subject to dry winds. The vegetative season is about 185 days in the north and about 200 days in the south. Besides the Don with its tributaries, in the east the Khoper River flows.

The oblast is situated in the forest-steppe and steppe zones. Leached and typical chernozems occur in the north, ordinary chernozems in the south; in river floodplains there are alluvial meadow soils; in balkas and gulches there are chernozem meadow soils. Oak, pine, and maple forests grow in river valleys and occupy 8% of the territory. Up to 70% of areas are plowed up. The Voronezhsky and Khopersky Reserves are situated on the territory of the oblast.

Barley, wheat, rye, sunflower, sugar-beet; and fruit are cultivated. There are beef and dairy stockbreeding, pig-breeding, sheep-breeding; and pure-strain horse-breeding (e.g., Orlov trotters). The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 50.8% cereal crops; 17.8% industrial crops; 5.2% potatoes and vegetables; and 26.1% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.06 grains; 4.6 potatoes; and 8.8 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 687.8 cattle, including 332.1 cows; and 571.5 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 1,669.8 grains; 668.1 potatoes; 189.6 vegetables; 112.4 meat; and 784.7 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 1,189 km railways and 9,012 km main roads.

YAMALO-NENETS AUTONOMOUS OKRUG

Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug is a subject of the Russian Federation within Tyumenskaya Oblast. It is situated in the extreme north of Western Siberia, partially over the Arctic Circle. It is open to the Kara Sea and includes the adjoining islands. The okrug was established on 10 December 1930, with an area of 750,300 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 506,800 people: 59.2% Russians, 17.2% Ukrainians, 9.7% others, 5.3% Tatars, 4.2% Nenets, 2.6% Byelorussians, 1.5% Khantys, and 0.3% Seljkups. The population density is 0.7 per km²; 82.8% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Salekhard, 32,900; Noyabrsk, 98,500; Novy Urengoi, 91,800; and Nadym, 47,100.

The okrug is situated within the limits of the West Siberian Plain. The topography is mainly low plain, in the west lie the eastern slopes of the Polar Urals (up to 1,499 m). The climate is extreme continental, and severe. Winter lasts up to 9 months. The average temperatures are: in January from –22^o to –26^oC, and in July from 4^o to 14^oC. Precipitation is 200–500 mm per year. Permafrost is widespread. The vegetative season is 50–100 days. The large rivers are the Ob, Taz, Pur, Nadym, and Messoyakha; there are many lakes.

The okrug is situated in the tundra, forest-tundra, and northern taiga zones. The soils are gleyzems, podzols, and peats. Sphagnum bogs are widespread. Pastures of domestic reindeer occupy about 46% of the territory. Forest massifs (larch, pine, spruce, and cedar) are situated mainly in the southern part of the okrug. The Verkhnetazovsky reserve is located there.

Reindeer-breeding, hunting of fur-bearing animals, and cage fur farming occur; cattle-breeding is insignificant. Potatoes are also cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 74.0% potatoes and vegetables and 26.0% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 9.5 potatoes and 5.9 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 2.4 cattle, including 1.2 cows; and 7.7 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 2.7 potatoes; 0.6 vegetables; 4.3 meat; and 3.5 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 495 km railways and 797 km main roads. The Ob, Nadym, Pur, Taz, and the Northern Sea Route are used for navigation.

YAROSLAVSKAYA OBLAST

Yaroslavskaya Oblast is situated in the center of European Russia. It was established on 11 March 1936 with an area of 36,400 km². According to the 1989 census, the population amounts to 1,425,100 people: 96.4% Russians and 3.6% others. The population density is 39.2 per km²; 80.4% of the population is urban. The largest cities (counted as of 01.01.1999) are: the capital Yaroslavl, 616,100; Rybinsk, 242,600; Tutaev, 45,700; Pereslavl-Zalesski, 44,900; Uglich, 38,100; and Rostov, 36,100.

In the east, there is a slightly hilly moraine plain, swamped in some areas, and replaced by vast lowlands. From the southwest to the northeast runs a belt of uplands (up to 292 m). In the southeast there is margin of the Klinsko-Dmitrovskaya Ridge. The climate is temperate continental. The average temperatures are: in January –10^oC, and in July 18^oC. Precipitation is about 600 mm per year. The vegetative season is 165–170 days. The main river is the Volga with its tributaries. The largest lakes are Nero, Pleshcheevo; Rybinskoe, and Kostromskoe; the Uglichskoe Reservoir is located there.

The oblast is situated in the southern taiga and mixed forests zones. The soils are mainly sod-podzolics, and light grey forest. In the north there are mainly spruce forests, mixed with birch and aspen. In the south there are mixed forests of coniferous and broad-leaved species (ash, maple, and oak). Forests occupy about half of the territory. The Pereslavsky Natural-Historical National Park and the Darvinski Reserve are located there.

Beef/dairy stockbreeding, pig breeding, poultry rising, and sheep-breeding all occur. Rye, potatoes, vegetables, and fodder crops are cultivated. The structure of the cultivated land in 1998 was: 27.6% cereal crops, 0.9% industrial crops; 5.5% potatoes and vegetables; and 66.0% fodder crops. The average crop yields (tons/ha, 1995) were: 1.04 grains; 14.3 potatoes; and 32.8 vegetables. The total number of livestock (thousand heads) in 1998 was: 284.6 cattle, including 136.3 cows; and 84.0 pigs. The total annual output (thousand tons) in 1998 was: 141.6 grains; 307.0 potatoes; 116.8 vegetables; 35.4 meat; and 354.4 milk.

The length of transport routes in 1998 was 650 km railways, and 6,221 km main roads. The Volga and Rybinskoe Reservoir are used for navigation.

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